14 Make every effort to live in peace with all men and to be holy; without holiness no one will see the Lord. 15 See to it that no one misses the grace of God and that no bitter root grows up to cause trouble and defile many. 16 See that no one is sexually immoral, or is godless like Esau, who for a single meal sold his inheritance rights as the oldest son. 17 Afterward, as you know, when he wanted to inherit this blessing, he was rejected. He could bring about no change of mind, though he sought the blessing with tears.
18 You have not come to a mountain that can be touched and that is burning with fire; to darkness, gloom and storm; 19 to a trumpet blast or to such a voice speaking words that those who heard it begged that no further word be spoken to them, 20 because they could not bear what was commanded: "If even an animal touches the mountain, it must be stoned." 21 The sight was so terrifying that Moses said, "I am trembling with fear."
22 But you have come to Mount Zion, to the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God. You have come to thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly, 23 to the church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven. You have come to God, the judge of all men, to the spirits of righteous men made perfect, 24 to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel.
25 See to it that you do not refuse him who speaks. If they did not escape when they refused him who warned them on earth, how much less will we, if we turn away from him who warns us from heaven? 26 At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has promised, "Once more I will shake not only the earth but also the heavens." 27 The words "once more" indicate the removing of what can be shaken--that is, created things--so that what cannot be shaken may remain.
28 Therefore, since we are receiving a kingdom that cannot be shaken, let us be thankful, and so worship God acceptably with reverence and awe, 29 for our "God is a consuming fire."
A Kingdom that Can Not Be Shaken
Hebrews 12:14-29
Sermon
by King Duncan
Richard Slyhoff, a Pennsylvania man who lived in the late 1800s, never cared about God--at least, during his lifetime. But as he pondered his impending death, Slyhoff became convinced that he would have to face some form of eternal judgement. Did this fear cause him to repent and seek a relationship with God? No. Slyhoff had a better idea. He would hide from God instead.
He dug his burial plot in the shadow of a large boulder. According to Slyhoff’s beliefs, a great earthquake would occur on the day of judgement, and all the dead would rise from their graves. Slyhoff was counting on that earthquake to dislodge the boulder and cover his grave. In this way, he reasoned, on the day of judgement there would be no way he could rise from the dead, and his tomb would be hidden from God’s eyes.
Here’s what is fascinating about this story: Over the years, the boulder hovering ominously above Richard Slyhoff’s grave has shifted. Part of that movement is due to erosion, part is due to a tornado that actually moved it out of place. The boulder no longer hangs over Richard Slyhoff’s grave. When the day of judgement does come for him, as it will for all of us, he will be surprised to discover he no longer has a rock to hide under. (1)
Even if our theology does not exactly match up with Richard Slyhoff’s, most of us would probably like to avoid paying for our sins. And, of course, there is a way--through the cross of Jesus Christ. Even more to the point for today’s discussion, however, all of us would like to find a safe place to stand when the earth begins to shake beneath our feet. In our epistle, the writer of Hebrews speaks of “a kingdom that cannot be shaken . . .” That is what we all want, isn’t it? We want something solid we can hold on to, something that will not deteriorate, something we can count on in good times or bad.
EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN. That’s the first thing we need to see. Earthquakes happen. [Now, admittedly, physical earthquakes don’t happen very often around here.] If we lived in California, things would be different. Californians have seen it all, haven’t they?
A few years ago, after a year that included earthquakes, wildfires, extreme winds, record flooding, and even some funnel clouds, Los Angeles weatherman Fritz Coleman described California like this. He said, “California [is] more than a state, it’s an Acts of God Theme Park.” (2)
California leads the nation in many things, not least of which is earthquakes. People in California know that earthquakes happen.
There is a famous story about Albert Einstein. In March of 1933 he was visiting the Long Beach campus of the University of California. He and a professor from
the Department of Geology were walking across the campus discussing earthquakes. Suddenly, they saw people running out of buildings. Einstein and the professor were puzzled. They had been so busy discussing earthquakes, they had not noticed that one was occurring at that very moment. (3)
So, maybe things are not as bad here as in California. But still, earthquakes happen. I read that South Dakota is the only state that’s never had an earthquake. I guess we could all move to South Dakota.
Earthquakes happen. Perhaps we will never experience a literal, physical earthquake, but we will certainly experience times when our world will be shaken.
Problems in our marriage, perhaps. Dr. William Barker once noted that, since 1688, Lloyd’s of London has underwritten insurance on nearly everything. Lloyd’s was established originally to insure losses on ships and cargoes. Through the years, the syndicate has expanded to cover nearly every imaginable contingency. Lloyd’s settled claims in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, on the Titanic, and on thousands of less famous disasters. The company has written policies covering pianists’ hands, dancers’ legs, singers’ voices, and actresses’ faces. Coffee crops, space flights--the riskiest ventures have been protected by Lloyd’s underwriters.
But even Lloyd’s of London will not insure a marriage. Think about that. They will not insure a marriage. A wedding, yes. A couple can arrange to make sure the caterer will appear as scheduled, the musicians will perform as planned, and the photographer will take pictures as contracted. All the details of the ceremony may be covered by special policies. But a successful marriage cannot be insured by Lloyd’s or any underwriter anywhere. Only a man and woman making commitments to God and to each other can guarantee a lifelong marriage. (4) Quite obviously, many marriages do not survive. There are earthquakes of many kinds.
The loss of a child. That’s an earthquake of unimaginable proportions. Many of us say that we can handle anything life may throw at us except watching our child suffer. And yet many good people--people of faith and commitment--have to deal with this earthquake.
Marriage. Family. There are many other emotional and spiritual earthquakes. Problems with health. Loss of a job. Betrayal by a friend. Things seem to be going along quite smoothly, but then we feel the ground starting to move beneath our feet. And suddenly our whole world is violently shaken. Where shall we turn when such times come?
Some people lose themselves in their work when they feel the ground shaking. Or in some recreation. Or drugs or alcohol. These serve only to mask the hurt and, indeed, may complicate the problem.
Some people reach out to their friends. This can be helpful, particularly to reach out to a friend who shares your faith. It depends on the friend, of course. Some friends, even religious friends, give terrible advice. The best friend simply allows you to express your pain.
Some people try counseling. This is much more productive. Many people have profited from time spent with a professional counselor. That is true whether you are dealing with marital problems or grief or any other problem that is weighing you down.
But still there comes a time when each of these solutions is inadequate. Where do we turn then? We turn, of course, to our faith.
Philip Yancey, in his book REACHING FOR THE INVISIBLE GOD, tells of his father‑in‑law, a Bible teacher and committed Christian. The older man’s faith troubled him in his final years. A degenerative nerve disease confined him to bed, preventing him from sharing in most of the activities he enjoyed. In addition to his own illness, his 39‑year‑old daughter battled a debilitating form of diabetes.
During the most severe crisis, he composed a Christmas letter and mailed it to family members and friends. He expressed his uneasy feelings about many things he had once taught. What could he believe with certainty? The old Bible teacher staked his
faith on three realities. Here is his list: “Life is difficult. God is merciful. Heaven is sure.” Those three things, he concluded, he could count on without reservation! When his daughter died of diabetic complications the week after he sent out this letter, he clung even more closely to those truths. (5)
Life is difficult, said this wise Bible teacher. We know that’s true. That’s what earthquakes are all about. But then he adds the other two realities: God is merciful, and heaven is sure. That’s the testimony of the writer of Hebrews. In our text for the day, he contrasts Mt. Sinai in the Old Testament to Mt. Zion in the New. Mt. Sinai, where Moses received the Law, was a place where God came in power. The response to God’s presence on Mt. Sinai was fear. He described a “mountain . . . burning with fire . . . darkness, gloom and storm . . .” It was a mountain where people were given commandments “they could not bear . . .” Even Moses trembled when he came near the mountain.
But Mt. Zion is an entirely different place. Listen as he describes it:
“But you have come to Mount Zion, to the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God. You have come to thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly, to the church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven. You have come to God, the judge of all men, to the spirits of righteous men made perfect, to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood . . .”
This is that unshakable kingdom about which he writes. It is life in the presence of God, where there is no fear, but only joy. How do we find ourselves in such a place?
There are two truths that make the kingdom of God accessible to us: The first is the CHARACTER OF GOD and the second is the CROSS OF CHRIST.
WE ARE PART OF AN UNSHAKABLE KINGDOM BECAUSE OF GOD’S GREAT LOVE FOR US. No other religion on earth emphasizes the love of God as does the Christian one. Our unshakeable kingdom is impossible without God’s love.
At the beginning of the 20th century a clergyman named Frank Graeff was suffering from severe illness and depression. He felt that God was very far away. In desperation, he opened his Bible and stumbled on a verse from the book of 1 Peter. He read these words from 1 Peter 5:7, “Cast your care and anxiety on God, for God cares for you.” In that moment, God graciously came near and brought life to Graeff’s difficult circumstances. He still confronted tough times, but he knew with certainty that God walked with him through them. As a response to this encounter with God, Graeff wrote the hymn, “Does Jesus Care?” Listen to the words from the first verse and refrain of this hymn.
Does Jesus care when my heart is pained too deeply for mirth and song;
as burdens press and the cares distress, and the way grows weary and long?
O yes, he cares; I know He cares, His heart is touched by my grief;
When the days are weary, the long nights dreary, I know my Savior cares. (6)
That is God’s character. That’s who God is. God cares about every one of us. God not only sees us in our need, but God’s heart is touched by our need. We do not have a God who is far off from us. Your marriage, your child, your every need--God knows. God cares. We have an unshakable kingdom, first of all, because of God’s character.
AND WE HAVE AN UNSHAKABLE KINGDOM BECAUSE OF CHRIST’S CROSS. “You have come to God,” writes the author of Hebrews, “ . . . to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood . . .”
In 1989, a devastating earthquake tore through the tiny country of Armenia, bringing down homes and buildings and destroying precious infrastructure. Fifty-five thousand people died in the aftermath. But great devastation creates great motivation; God made the human spirit to rise above tragedy with a selflessness that is simply breathtaking.
Out of the tragedy of the Armenian earthquake comes the story of Susanna Petrosyan, a humble mother who sacrificed herself to save her precious child.
According to Associated Press reports, Susanna and her four-year-old daughter were trapped in the debris of their fallen home. As they waited for rescue, Susanna’s heart broke at the sound of her daughter’s cries. The little girl was so thirsty, and Susanna had no way to satisfy her.
“It was then that I remembered that I had my own blood,” writes Susanna.
Using a jagged shard of glass, Susanna slit her own fingers and allowed her daughter to drink some of her blood. For the next eight days, until mother and child were rescued, this was how Susanna sustained the life of her child.
Sustained by her mother’s blood . . . That sounds strangely similar to what we believe about Christ.
Here is the Good News for the day. According to the writer of Hebrews, we are protected by Christ’s own blood, we are sustained by Christ’s own blood, we are brought into reconciliation with God by Christ’s own blood. We don’t need to hide from God and bury ourselves beneath a boulder. God loves us. Christ died for us. Don’t lose hope the next time you feel the earth trembling under your feet, regardless of what that earthquake may be. We are part of an unshakable kingdom. Christ has brought us into the Kingdom of God.
1. Dr. William P. Barker, Editor, Tarbell’s Teacher’s Guide, Sept. 1996-Aug. 1997. (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook).
2. Reader’s Digest, Oct. 2001. p. 132.
3. Robert C. Shannon, 1000 Windows: A Speaker’s Sourcebook of Illustrations, Standard Publishing Company, 1984.
4. Dr. William P. Barker, Tarbell’s Teacher’s Guide, Sept. 1997-Aug. 1998, (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook).
5. Philip Yancey, Reaching for the Invisible God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 2000).
6. Ken Onstot, http://www.hamblenpres.org/sermon/index.html.
Dynamic Preaching, Dynamic Preaching Third Quarter 2007, by King Duncan
Because of all the examples of faith mentioned in the previous chapter (“cloud of witnesses” meaning we look to them as witnesses to God’s faithfulness, rather than them peering down on us from heaven), believers should get rid of every unnecessary hindrance and run the endurance race set before them (12:1). The Christian life is more like a marathon than a sprint. We should fix our eyes on Jesus, the pioneer and perfecter of our faith, as our ultimate example of perseverance (12:2). He endured the shame of the cross because of his firm confidence in the joy of future resurrection and exaltation. As these listeners considered the example of Jesus, they would also be reminded that they had not yet persevered to the point of martyrdom (12:3–4). In 12:5–11, the metaphor of a dis…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
14 Make every effort to live in peace with all men and to be holy; without holiness no one will see the Lord. 15 See to it that no one misses the grace of God and that no bitter root grows up to cause trouble and defile many. 16 See that no one is sexually immoral, or is godless like Esau, who for a single meal sold his inheritance rights as the oldest son. 17 Afterward, as you know, when he wanted to inherit this blessing, he was rejected. He could bring about no change of mind, though he sought the blessing with tears.
18 You have not come to a mountain that can be touched and that is burning with fire; to darkness, gloom and storm; 19 to a trumpet blast or to such a voice speaking words that those who heard it begged that no further word be spoken to them, 20 because they could not bear what was commanded: "If even an animal touches the mountain, it must be stoned." 21 The sight was so terrifying that Moses said, "I am trembling with fear."
22 But you have come to Mount Zion, to the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God. You have come to thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly, 23 to the church of the firstborn, whose names are written in heaven. You have come to God, the judge of all men, to the spirits of righteous men made perfect, 24 to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel.
25 See to it that you do not refuse him who speaks. If they did not escape when they refused him who warned them on earth, how much less will we, if we turn away from him who warns us from heaven? 26 At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has promised, "Once more I will shake not only the earth but also the heavens." 27 The words "once more" indicate the removing of what can be shaken--that is, created things--so that what cannot be shaken may remain.
28 Therefore, since we are receiving a kingdom that cannot be shaken, let us be thankful, and so worship God acceptably with reverence and awe, 29 for our "God is a consuming fire."
Each person must study holiness, as the gospel requires, and help others to do the same, taking special care to nip sin in the bud when it arises within the community (12:14–17; cf. Deut. 29:18; 1Cor. 5:6). Esau exemplifies the person who exchanges the unseen and future inheritance for the sensible and immediate pleasures of this world and, consequently, “falls short of the grace of God,” that is, squanders irrevocably the blessing that was in one’s grasp (Heb. 6:4–6; 10:26–31). Esau’s tears showed remorse for the consequences of his folly, not godly sorrow that brings true repentance (cf. Gen. 27:34–40).
Verses 18–21 are commonly understood as setting forth a contrast: the old revelation and dispensation is earthly, menacing, and morbid in its concentration on law and judgment, while the new is spiritual, heavenly, and happy. But these verses present Israel not as a paradigm of Old Testament spirituality but of unbelief that leads to death in any epoch. That Israel “begged that no further word be spoken to them” was, in the judgment of this author, a culpable act of rebellion against God. The word the NIV translates “begged” in verse 19 is the same word it translates “refuse” in verse 25. Moreover, after all that has already been said of the unbelief of the wilderness generation (3:7–4:5), it is surely unlikely that here it is held up as exemplifying godly fear. The author correctly understands Israel’s request (cf. Deut. 5:23–29), though not in itself sinful, as neither genuine nor indicative of future commitments. Further, as the citation of Deuteronomy 9:19 confirms, Moses’s fear was not of the awesome manifestations of the divine holiness—he had already walked into that fire and gloom to the top of the mountain—but of the prospect of divine judgment against the people for the sin with the golden calf. These verses, then, depict the terror of the apostate face-to-face with the wrath of God, a terror no less the destiny of those who forsake the Lord today (Heb. 12:25, 29; see also 10:27, 30–31).
Contrarily, the author is confident of better things concerning his readers, the things that are obtained by a living faith (12:22–24). The thought is similar to that of 6:9–10 and 10:39. He is persuaded that his readers are genuinely converted (the probable interpretation of Greek proserchomai, NIV “you have come to”; cf. Heb. 11:6), and thus that their situation is different from Israel’s in the same way it is unlike Esau’s. This confidence is the basis of his appeal to them to persevere. Of course, the blessings enumerated are not peculiar to the new epoch; they are the better things of the heavenly country that believers have always grasped from afar by faith (Heb. 11:10, 13–16, 26–27) and must so grasp by faith today. Hebrews was written to warn this community of believers that it would, like Israel, forfeit these very blessings if it chose to mimic Israel’s apostasy. “Church of the firstborn” (12:23) refers to the privileged station of the saints as set apart to God (Exod. 4:22; 13:2) and heirs of all things, the very privileges that Esau squandered (Heb. 12:16–17).
The admonition in verses 25–27 reiterates 3:7–12 and 4:1–2. The readers must not imitate faithless Israel in the wilderness. The threat of divine judgment is no less serious today. In view of the connection of thought between verses 24 and 25 (“that speaks ... who speaks”), it is reasonable to assume that Jesus is to be understood as the one who thundered his law at Sinai and who utters the promise of Haggai 2:6. Believers have not yet taken possession of the better things, but soon they will, and that forever (12:28–29). That prospect ought to awaken them to glad thanksgiving and to a new determination to work out their salvation in fear and trembling so as not to be found at last among those who miss the grace of God (12:15) and instead must face God’s wrath. The warning reiterates Deuteronomy 4:23–24 and indicates that the word of God is no less menacing to the unbeliever and the disobedient today than it was in Moses’s day.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Looking to Jesus as the Perfect Pattern
With the glorious history of the faithful in mind, our author turns now to his readers. The standard of faith has been set by the record of God’s faithful people in the past, who moved out into the unknown with confidence and who endured hardship without giving up their expectation of a future fulfillment of the promise. But the author now comes to the supreme example of this kind of faith in Jesus—the name that must be the climax of any list of paragons of faith. Jesus himself endured great suffering without losing sight of the glory that was to come. The readers, together with Christians of every era, are called to walk in the steps of faith that characterized the saints of the past and the one who has now been made Lord. Only such an attitude of faith can sustain them during the adversities they may be called to face.
12:1 The first, and therefore emphatic, word of the original text is a strong inferential particle, therefore. The exhortation now to be given is based on the reality expounded in chapter 11. The community of faith is such that it figuratively surrounds us like a great cloud of witnesses. Witnesses here does not mean observers of the present conduct of Christians but rather those who testify or give evidence of the victorious life of faith. They show that it is possible to live by faith. Motivated by the preceding catalogue of examples, the readers are themselves to live the life of faith. The exhortation is given in figurative language: Let us run with perseverance the race marked out for us. But if the race is to be run (cf. the same imagery in 2 Tim. 4:7), we must put away everything that hinders (lit., “every weight” or “impediment”). The author does not specify any impediments; it is understood that anything that hinders the life of faith as it has been portrayed in the preceding chapter is to be laid aside. One clear obstacle to the life of faith, however, is the sin that so easily entangles. The relation between sin and unbelief has already been the subject of our author’s attention (cf. 3:12, 18f.). The believers’ susceptibility to sin (cf. Rom. 7:21) must not be allowed to thwart them in their pursuit of the goal (cf. 11:25). Taking courage from past examples, the readers are exhorted to complete the course upon which they have embarked.
12:2 An even more significant example of the life of faith is to be found in Jesus, now described as the author (or “pioneer”) and perfecter of our faith. The word for “pioneer” is the same word used in 2:10 (“author,” or “originator,” of salvation; cf. Acts 3:15). Is there a sense in which Jesus can be described as the “originator” of faith? Like Paul (Gal. 3:23–26; cf. John 1:17), our author believes that the people of God could indeed have lived by faith in past generations, but that in a fundamental sense the possibility—or at least the validity—of faith in any era depended and depends upon the work of Christ. That is, because Christ is so central both to the promise and to the fulfillment, because he brings into existence the hoped-for telos (and is therefore the perfecter of faith), he is also the “originator” or “founder” of faith. As perfecter of faith, he brings it to its intended goal. Thus, whether one talks about faith as a possibility or as the experience of fulfillment, all depends upon Jesus. For this reason, Christians must keep looking away from this world to him. He is not only the basis, means, and fulfillment of faith, but in his life he also exemplifies the same principle of faith that we saw in the paragons of chapter 11. Thus, by faith he counted upon the reality of future joy and, assessing present circumstances in light of the glorious future, he endured the cross, scorning its shame. He died as a despised criminal (cf. Phil. 2:8). And that future joy is already his in a preliminary way, for he sat down at God’s right hand. This description of Christ in the language of Psalm 110:1 alludes throughout the book to the completeness of his work (cf. 10:11f.).
12:3 The readers are encouraged to consider Jesus as the one who suffered, who endured such opposition (lit., “hostility”) from sinful men. In this sense Jesus is a model of all the suffering of the righteous at the hands of the enemies of God. Consideration of what Jesus endured will prevent the readers from growing weary and losing heart. Following Jesus as their model, they can endure the most trying of circumstances.
Additional Notes
12:1 The initial word toigaroun may be translated “for that very reason” (see BAGD, p. 821) and may refer particularly to the immediately preceding statement (11:40) that “only together with us would they be made perfect.” The saints of God, both past and present, must arrive at the goal together, and therefore it is up to the readers to emulate the faith of their forebears. Only in this way can the people of God as a unity experience the eschatological consummation of God’s purposes. The word cloud (nephos) is used commonly in Greek literature to indicate a “host” or “company.” This is the only occurrence of the noun “witness” (martys) in Hebrews, except for the quotation of Deut. 17:6 in 10:28. The Greek word had not yet acquired the meaning of “martyr” as one who gives his life for what he believes, which it came to have by the second or third century. See H. Strathmann, TDNT, vol. 4, pp. 504–12. The word for “impediment” (onkos) occurs only here in the Greek Bible. See H. Seesemann, TDNT, vol. 5, p. 41. A textual variant to the Greek word underlying NIV’s that so easily entangles (euperistatos) is found in the early and important P46, which has euperispastos, “easily distracting.” The latter reading may have occurred, however, because of some uncertainty about the meaning of the former word (which is not found elsewhere in the NT, the LXX, or Greek writers prior to the NT). F. F. Bruce (Hebrews, p. 350) quotes E. K. Simpson, who defines the word as meaning “so prone to hamper or trammel.” This has an appropriate significance in the present context. See Metzger, TCGNT, p. 675. Athletic imagery is used frequently in the NT to describe the kind of discipline and dedication needed to live the Christian life (see especially 1 Cor. 9:24–27). This same imagery of the athletic contest is used in describing the sufferings and martyrdoms of the Maccabean age in 4 Macc. 17:9ff. On the metaphorical language of “running a race,” see also Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16. Perseverance or “endurance” (hypomonē) is an important need of the readers (cf. 10:36). If there is a demanding course marked out for (prokeimai, lit., “lying before”) us, there is also a great hope that is also said to lie before us (6:18, using the same verb; cf. the same verb in describing the joy set before Jesus in v. 2).
12:2 The exhortation let us fix our eyes on Jesus continues the metaphor of a race, where the runner must avoid distraction of every kind (cf. “looking unto God,” 4 Macc. 17:10; cf. Acts 7:55). In this case, however, Jesus is appealed to not merely as another example, but as one whose whole existence revolves around faith. NIV’s our faith is better taken literally as “the faith” or “faith” in a more general sense. He is the pioneer and perfecter not simply of the faith of Christians, but of the faith of every era. For “pioneer” (archēgos), see note on 2:10. The word for perfecter (teleiotēs) is found only here in the Greek Bible and does not occur in Greek literature prior to the NT. Our author, however, uses several cognate words (see notes on 2:10; 6:1; 7:11). See G. Delling, TDNT, vol. 8, pp. 86–87. Jesus is referred to in Rev. 1:5 (cf. Rev. 3:14) as “the faithful witness” (ho martys ho pistos). On “faith,” see note to 11:1. For structural analysis see D. A. Black, “A Note on the Structure of Hebrews 12, 1–2,” Biblica 68 (1987), pp. 543–51.
Some have thought that to say that Jesus endured the cross for the joy set before him is to base Jesus’ obedient death upon an unworthy motive. They accordingly prefer to interpret the preposition anti to mean, as it can, “instead of” rather than before (cf. NEB margin: “in place of the joy that was open to him”). This objection, however, fails to understand that the stress on the future hope of the Christian is exactly the point that the author has made to his readers throughout the preceding chapter, and that he wishes to underline here. Furthermore, to say that Jesus was motivated by the joy that was to be his afterwards in no way need exclude the motives of obedience to the Father and the procurement of salvation for the world. Indeed, the joy that Jesus was to experience is inseparable from the accomplishment of God’s saving purposes, and thus in a fundamental sense it is a shared joy (cf. John 17:13). Our author has already pointed out that the purpose of the incarnation was the death of God’s Son and hence the deliverance of the world from sin and death (cf. 2:10, 14f., 17).
Crucifixion was one of the most despicable forms of death in the Roman world. Roman citizens were automatically protected against this form of capital punishment, which was thought suitable only for barbarians. Jesus disregarded totally the shame attached to it. See E. Brandenburger, NIDNTT, vol. 1, pp. 391–403. Among the several allusions to Ps. 110:1, this is the only time the verb for sat down occurs in the perfect tense (the other occurrences are aorists). The emphasis is on the present reign of Christ as the corresponding fulfillment of the joy set before him. On the importance of Ps. 110 for our epistle, see note on 1:3.
12:3 The particular word used here for consider (analogizomai) occurs only here in the NT. The object of the verb, as in v. 2, is the one who suffered rather than the sufferings. The perfect tense of the Greek participle underlying endured (hypomenō) suggests the completed results from Jesus’ endurance of the cross. The word “hostility” (antilogia) in connection with the cross may allude to the derision of Jesus’ enemies (e.g., Matt. 27:39; cf. Ps. 22:7f.). A textual variant supplies a plural instead of a singular reflexive pronoun, resulting in the hostility of sinners being directed “against themselves.” This, however, makes little sense and thus is probably to be rejected despite its superior textual attestation. See Metzger, TCGNT, p. 675. The language of this verse bears some resemblance to the LXX of Num. 17:2f. (16:38 in English translations of the OT). The thought of what Jesus endured should help the readers not to grow weary (kamnō) and lose heart (lit., “fainting in your souls,” ASV). And we know from earlier passages in the epistle that our author is apprehensive for the readers in this regard (cf. 3:12; 4:1; 6:4ff.; 10:26ff., 35).
The Purpose of Chastening
As we have seen, a main purpose of the author throughout the book is to call his readers to faithfulness in the midst of adverse circumstances. Near the end of his epistle he exhorts them to “go forth to him [Jesus] outside the camp and bear the abuse he endured” (13:13, RSV). Although no members of the community have yet suffered martyrdom, the future may involve just that. Any perspective like this, which affirms suffering as the duty of the faithful, must develop a theology of suffering wherein suffering can be understood in a positive light. That is the purpose of the present section. Suffering, far from being a contradiction of the Christian’s status, as the world is inclined to think, is actually a mark of his or her true status. Suffering is necessarily involved in being a child of God and is not a contradiction of God’s love.
12:4 Struggle against sin here signifies, as the context indicates, not the battle of the Christian to keep from sinning (cf. v. 1), but the struggle to avoid apostatizing. It may refer as much to the sin of the enemies of God who persecute his people as to the potential sin of apostasy in the readers themselves. It is this that they are to resist. There have indeed been difficult times in the past (cf. 10:32–34), and perhaps also in the present, but resistance for the readers has not yet come to the point of shedding your blood (i.e., being killed). In that regard they have not equalled the suffering of the supreme paradigm of faith who, as the preceding verses emphasize, went to the cross and paid the ultimate price.
12:5–6 It is possible to understand the opening sentence either as a statement, as in NIV’s you have forgotten, or as a question (cf. RSV, GNB, JB). That the readers are somewhat discouraged is clear. The difficulties they face are such that the author wants to remind them of the place of suffering in the life of faith. They need to remember again that word of encouragement (lit., “encouragement” or “exhortation”) in Scripture which speaks of the advantage of those who are sons. The quotation is from Proverbs 3:11f. What is in view in the present context is a positive kind of discipline that trains a person in obedience. This is the way they are to perceive the adversity they are experiencing: it is a mark of the Lord’s love (cf. Rev. 3:19), on the one hand, and of their sonship, on the other. They are therefore not to lose heart (cf. v. 3).
12:7–8 Having presented the OT quotation, the author now provides another midrashic commentary in which he utilizes the actual words of the quotation to present his argument (for earlier examples of this procedure, see 2:6–9; 3:7–4:10; 10:5–11). This can be seen in the threefold use of the words “discipline” and “sons” (or “son”) in these verses. The root of the word “discipline” (paid-) also occurs once in each of the next three verses. The readers are first exhorted to endure their suffering as discipline and the sign that God is dealing with them as sons. The author continues with a rhetorical question that points to the universality of the disciplining of sons by their fathers (or children by their parents). Indeed, he adds, without the experience of this kind of discipline (and everyone undergoes discipline), one must count oneself as an illegitimate rather than an authentic son or daughter. In short, it is a part of authentic sonship (and not the contradiction of it) to experience the discipline of God as Father. We may recall what is said of Christ in 5:8: “Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he suffered.”
12:9–10In these verses our author draws his analogy further, using an a fortiori form of argument (from the lesser to the greater). As far as our human fathers (lit., “fathers of our flesh”) are concerned, they disciplined us and yet we respected them for it. What seems to be meant by this is that we accepted the discipline without questioning either the authority of our literal parent or our status as legitimate children. All the more then should we be submissive to the Father of our spirits (lit., “the Father of spirits”) and thus live (lit., “we will live”). “The Father of spirits” is our creator, to whom we owe our existence in an ultimate sense. As we are submissive to his discipline we will begin to live the life of the eschaton (cf. 1 Cor. 11:32). The contrast contained in v. 10 makes a similar point. We should be even more receptive to God’s disciplining than we were to our human fathers’. They disciplined us for a little while (lit., “a few days”), that is, during our childhood, and used as their standard only what subjectively they thought best. The implication is that God disciplines us throughout our life and in accordance with his own knowledge of our good, with the final goal that we may share in his holiness. In actuality our character is being formed by the experience of suffering. We are being purified and made to share the holiness of God, especially as revealed in his Son (cf. Rom. 8:29). By connecting suffering with holiness our author sanctifies suffering as something that has a very special purpose in the life of the Christian.
12:11 The author readily admits that, while it is being experienced, the discipline of suffering seems to produce sorrow rather than joy. Yet with the perspective of time the true purpose of such suffering will make itself plain, for those who have suffered will receive a harvest of righteousness and peace (lit., “the peaceful fruit of righteousness,” RSV, NASB). Righteousness, then, is the portion of those who accept the discipline of suffering from their Father’s hand. The point of this verse is the same as that of 2 Corinthians 4:17, where Paul writes: “For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all” (cf. the closely related emphasis of 1 Pet. 1:6f.; 4:12–14).
Additional Notes
12:4 “Resistance to the point of death” is a common motif in Jewish literature, describing absolute commitment and endurance in a struggle against opponents. Our author is exceptional in using the word “blood” rather than “death,” but it is fairly certain that he means martyrdom rather than merely the sustaining of wounds. The particular word for struggle used here (antikathistēmi) occurs only here in the NT. The same is true of the word translated resisted by NIV (antagonizomai). On the use of sin (hamartia) as referring to apostasy, see especially 10:26f. See W. Günther, NIDNTT, vol. 3, pp. 577–83.
12:5–6 The quotation again follows the LXX of Prov. 3:11f. nearly verbatim (the author adds my after the initial son). The LXX follows the Hebrew quite closely except for some slight deviation in the last line. There the LXX has added a verb (NIV’s punishes) and translates the Hebrew verb “delights” with the Greek word “receives” (NIV’s accepts). The added verb strengthens the obvious parallelism with the first line of Prov. 3:12 (Heb. 12:6). It is interesting to note that Philo quotes this same passage in an argument very similar to our author’s, in which suffering is shown to benefit the recipient and is to be regarded as a blessing (On the Preliminary Studies, 175).
12:7–8 The words for discipline are drawn from the same root (verb: paideuō; noun: paideia and paideutēs). Words derived from this root occur twice in the original quotation and no less than six times in the author’s midrashic exposition of the passage (three times in vv. 7–8). On the positive significance of paideia here, as “education for eternity,” see G. Bertram, TDNT, vol. 5, pp. 621–24. The imperative endure (hypomenō) is the same verb used in vv. 2 and 3 in describing Jesus’ endurance of the cross. The readers are thus called to endure as he endured (cf. 10:36). In v. 8 the word everyone (pantes) was probably also suggested to the author by its occurrence in the original quotation (v. 6). The point is not merely that all God’s sons are disciplined, but that all sons universally are disciplined by their fathers. True sons were disciplined by their fathers in order to become worthy heirs; illegitimate children (nothos, which occurs only here in the NT) were not able to inherit and thus were not worth the trouble of such training. Thus those who suffer discipline have established not only their true sonship but also their status as heirs.
12:9–10The a fortiori form of argument is used often in Hebrews (cf. 2:2ff.; 9:14; 10:29; 12:25). The analogy between human fathers and the “heavenly father” is found several times in the teaching of Jesus (e.g., Matt. 7:9–11; 21:28–31; Luke 15:11–32). The expression “fathers of our flesh” stands in contrast to “the Father of spirits.” The former refers clearly to literal, human fathers; the latter to the creator in an absolute sense, and for the Christian in the more specific sense as the Father to whom they have become sons through the new covenant. The phrase “the Father of spirits” (patēr tōn pneumatōn) is similar to “the God of the spirits of all mankind” in Num. 16:22 and 27:16 (cf. “the Lord of spirits” in the Similitudes of Enoch, 1 Enoch 37ff.; cf. 2 Macc. 3:24). No anthropological dualism (wherein God is the creator only of our spirits) is intended by our author. See E. Schweizer, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 141f. In v. 9 human fathers are described as “correctors” (paideutēs), a word that occurs elsewhere in the NT only in Rom. 2:20. The future tense of the verb live orients the reader to an eschatological expectation, as does the full realization of the sharing of his holiness (v. 10) and the reaping of a harvest of righteousness and peace (v. 11). This is akin to the statement in Acts 14:22 that “We must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God.” The statement that human fathers disciplined only for a little while suggests the lesser importance of the discipline of human fathers compared to that of God our Father. The advantage of the Father’s disciplining is our participation in his holiness (hagiotēs), an unusual Greek word that is found elsewhere in the NT only in 2 Cor. 1:12.
12:11 The ultimately beneficial character of suffering, despite its present pains, is a familiar motif in the Bible (cf. Ps. 119:67, 71, for benefits in the present life; 2 Thess. 1:5–8 and Matt. 5:10–12, for benefits in the life of the future). With the word trained (gymnazō), the author returns to the athletic games for his imagery, thus ending the passage with language from the same font as that used in verse 1. The fruit of righteousness is called peaceful (eirēnikos) because it is the resolution of the “struggle” (v. 4) brought about by the sufferings of the present time. The latter must always find their truest answer in the final consummation of all things, but this cannot be allowed to weaken the author’s emphasis on the experience of realized eschatology, to which he will turn in 12:18ff.
A Challenge to Holiness and Faithfulness
In the light of the positive view of suffering set forth in the preceding section, the author now again gives a pastoral exhortation to his readers. They are to get on with the business of living the Christian life and to resist the temptation to return to their former ways, though such a retreat may appear to be less troublesome. A negative example, Esau, is provided as a further warning to the readers. This exhortation has much in common with preceding ones (e.g., 2:1–3; 4:1–2; 6:1–6; 10:32–36), but if anything, it carries even more persuasive power because of the material surveyed in chapter 11 and the argument of 12:1–11.
12:12–13 / The unusual imagery of the language of verse 12 is drawn from the LXX of Isaiah 35:3, where the context speaks of eschatological fulfillment, and the following sentence reads: “Tell everyone who is discouraged, ‘Be strong and don’t be afraid.’” The exhortation of this verse, as the context in Isaiah indicates, is thus very pertinent to the condition of the readers. The thrust of the exhortation to strengthen your feeble (or “drooping,” so RSV, NEB) arms (lit., “hands”) and weak knees is that the readers should take heart and thereby receive strength to face their difficult circumstances. The opening words of verse 13 are drawn from the LXX of Proverbs 4:26: Make level paths for your feet, where the parallel line is “order your ways aright.” The reference to the lame probably came to the author by the prompting of the words of Isaiah 35:3 in verse 12. Where there are weakness and drooping limbs there may also be lameness (see also Isa. 35:6). And if we associate avoidance of lameness with level paths, feet (as in NIV) may, in keeping with Proverbs 4:26, be thought of to go along with arms (“hands”) and knees. Disabled is literally “turned aside,” probably in the sense of “dislocated” (cf. RSV: “put out of joint”). Thus, if the readers make their paths straight, living in a way that is pleasing to God, what is lame and painful will be healed, rather than aggravated. The metaphorical language of these verses, from what we know elsewhere in Hebrews, may be assumed to constitute a graphic portrayal of the condition of the readers.
12:14 The exhortation of this verse appears to be more general, much like that found in other NT epistles. The readers are told to “pursue” (which NIV translates make every effort to live in) peace with all men and to be holy (“holiness”). The language “pursue peace” stems from Psalm 34:14 and is found also in Romans 14:19 and 1 Peter 3:11 (cf. Heb. 12:18; 2 Cor. 13:11; 2 Tim. 2:22; 1 Thess. 5:13). The exhortation to holiness, of course, is common in the NT. Holiness has already been set forth as the goal of the Christian in verse 10. If we remember that suffering and holiness are connected, the one producing the other, we may see the present exhortation as specifically pertinent to the readers. To see the Lord refers to the end of the age. “But we know that when he appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is” (1 John 3:2). It is worth noting that in two successive beatitudes Jesus refers to “the pure in heart” who will “see God” and the peacemakers who will be called “sons of God” (Matt. 5:8–9).
12:15 The exhortation in this verse is directed to what is apparently the main concern of the author. Again and again we have seen this concern emerge (e.g., 2:1ff.; 3:12ff.; 4:1ff.; 6:4ff.; 10:23, 26ff., 35). Here he appeals to the responsibility of the community for each of its members. Thus they are to see to it that no one misses the grace of God. The members of the community are to be accountable for one another (which may also be the point made in 10:25). The exhortation is restated in the language of Deuteronomy 29:18 about a bitter root that can grow and defile others around it. The appropriateness of the allusion is plain from Deuteronomy 29:19: “When such a person hears the words of this oath, he invokes a blessing on himself and therefore thinks, ‘I will be safe, even though I persist in going my own way.’ This will bring disaster on the watered land as well as the dry.” (Cf. GNB: “That would destroy all of you, good and evil alike.”) The lapse of one member (or more) of the community will have its inevitable effect on others and is therefore to be prevented insofar as it is possible.
12:16–17 The reference in the preceding exhortation to the danger of “missing the grace of God” is now reinforced by the example of the unfortunate Esau. The community is to attempt to prevent anyone from becoming like him. Esau is described as godless (lit., “irreligious”) because he traded his inheritance rights (lit., “birthright”) as the oldest son for a meal of bread and pottage (Gen. 25:33f.). In this regard Esau is the antithesis of the paragons of faith in chapter 11. He trades off what is unseen and what lies in the future for immediate gratification in the present (cf. 11:25f.). He thus forfeited the inheritance that was his right as the first-born. Later Esau bitterly regretted his decision because when he wanted to inherit this (lit., “the”) blessing, he was rejected. For there was no going back on his decision; he could bring about no change of mind (lit., “he found no way of repentance”). Repentance was not a possibility although he sought it with tears (Gen. 27:30–40). This warning concerning Esau’s sad plight is reminiscent of the author’s warning to the readers in 6:4ff. (cf. 10:26f.) about the impossibility of repentance for those who abandon the faith. Esau found no way back from his decision; the readers must learn from this how serious apostasy is, and not count upon an easy return to Christianity in more convenient times.
Additional Notes
12:12–13 / The imagery of Isa. 35:3 appears to have exercised influence on other writers besides the author of Hebrews, Thus Sirach also refers to “drooping hands and weak knees” (25:23; cf. 2:12; Zeph. 3:16). The word that describes knees as “tired” (paralyō) is used to describe the paralyzed man healed by Jesus in Luke 5:18–26. The word translated strengthen (anorthoō) occurs elsewhere in the NT only in Luke 13:13 and Acts 15:16. The rare word for paths (trochia), drawn from Prov. 4:26, occurs only here in the NT. Lame (chōlos) is the commonly used word in the NT, occurring only here in Hebrews. “Turned aside” (ektrepō) occurs elsewhere in the NT only in the Pastorals where it regularly means “to go astray.” Perhaps in light of v. 15 an echo of this meaning may be seen here (note, too, level [lit., “straight”] paths). The common verb healed (iaomai) occurs only here in Hebrews.
12:14 In the great benediction of 13:20f. God is referred to as “the God of peace.” The word for holiness in this verse (hagiasmos) is usually translated “sanctification” in the NT (e.g., the RSV of Rom 6:19, 22; 1 Cor. 1:30; 1 Thess. 4:3). This word occurs only here in Hebrews. Its meaning, however, is not different from the related word used in v. 10. Sanctification is a state of holiness, and it is this that the readers are to pursue. Holiness is set forth as an essential requirement of the Christian particularly in 1 Pet. 1:15: “Just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do,” words that are followed by a quotation from Leviticus (11:44f.; 19:2). See also Matt. 5:48. On the eschatological vision of God, see Rev. 22:4.
12:15 Underlying NIV’s see to it is the Greek word episkopeō, which has the sense of “overseeing” or “caring for.” This word (and its cognate noun), which here apparently refers to the responsibility of the entire community, soon becomes applied specifically to the official church leadership. The only other occurrence of the verb in the NT is in 1 Pet. 5:2. Underlying NIV’s misses is the Greek word hystereō (lit., “fall short”), the same verb used in the same connection in 4:1. The expression the grace of God occurs earlier in 2:9 where it refers to the atoning death of Jesus. Our author’s words cause trouble (from the verb enochleō) probably represent a minor corruption of the LXX text (which reads pen cholē “in gall”; cf. GNB’s addition of the words “with its poison”). Because “trouble” and “gall” are fairly similar in meaning, the slight alteration of the LXX text is not serious. The result of such a bitter root in the community is literally “that the many become defiled.” The word “defiled” (miainō) here is used for both ceremonial (John 18:28; 1 Macc. 1:63) and moral (Titus 1:15) uncleanness. In the present context the defilement has to do with tendencies toward apostasy.
12:16–17 As with his examples in chap. 11, the suitability of the example of Esau for the author’s point is so striking that it is easy to imagine the diligence with which he searched his OT for appropriate illustrative material. It is debatable whether both sexually immoral and godless are to be understood as referring to Esau. That our author has a concern about sexual immorality among the readers seems clear from 13:4. It is also clear that Esau is portrayed in Jewish tradition as guilty of sexual immorality (see Strack-Billerbeck for examples). In the present context the second word is obviously appropriate. Esau was “irreligious” (bebēlos) because he had no regard for his lineage or for the covenant promises associated with that lineage. This is in obvious contrast to the portrayal of Jacob in 11:21. When Esau is said to have wanted to inherit this blessing, what is meant of course is the restoration of his birthright as the first-born son. He was rejected (apodokimazō) may perhaps be better translated “declared disqualified” (cf. BAGD, p. 90). The word for “repentance” (metanoia) occurs in a similar connection in 6:6. It is difficult to know whether the antecedent of it (autēn) at the end of v. 17 is “repentance” or the blessing (added by NIV), both of which are feminine nouns. The difference, however, is only slight, since the “repentance” was after all designed to repossess the blessing. Futility in one meant futility in the other, and thus either could have been the source of Esau’s anguish.
The Glory of the Christian’s Present Status
In one of the most remarkable passages in the whole book, the author presents a vivid contrast between Mount Sinai and Mount Zion, between the essential character of the old and new covenants. In so doing he provides a startling portrait of the readers’ possession in and through Christ. It would be difficult to find a more impressive and moving expression of realized eschatology in the entire NT. The author’s purpose is to enlarge the horizons of the readers to enable them to comprehend the true glory of what they participate in as Christian believers. What they are presently tempted to return to, their former Judaism, pales significantly in the comparison (cf. 2 Cor. 3:4–18). Those who have been to Mount Zion can never contemplate a return to Mount Sinai.
12:18 The vocabulary of this and the following verse is drawn to a large extent from the LXX accounts of Moses on Sinai (esp. Deut. 4:11; 5:22–25; Exod. 19:12–19). The allusion cannot have been missed by the original readers. The manifestations of God’s presence on Sinai were tangible, that is, they could be experienced by the senses. The fire, darkness, gloom, and storm made a vivid impression on the Israelites.
12:19–20 They also heard a trumpet blast and a voice speaking words. According to the Exodus narrative (20:19) the people indicated to Moses their fear of God’s voice. “Speak to us yourself and we will listen. But do not have God speak to us or we will die.” This same fear is also recorded in Deuteronomy (5:25): “We will die if we hear the voice of the LORD our God any longer.” It was not only the actual hearing of God’s voice that frightened the Israelites, but also the stern commands he uttered. Our author provides an example in the prohibition against touching the holy mountain. The awesome and absolute holiness of God’s presence was unapproachable. Even an animal was to be stoned if it touched the mountain (the quotation is from Exod. 19:13). The result of the Israelites’ fear was that they wanted no further word to be spoken to them.
12:21 According to our author, even Moses was filled with fear at the spectacle of the theophany at Sinai. The words attributed to him are not found in the OT. The closest resemblance to them is found in Deuteronomy 9:19, where, after the rebellion of the Israelites in the wilderness, Moses says, “I feared the anger and wrath of the Lord.” The author’s picture of the giving of the law at Sinai, then, is one in which fear and the sternness of God’s commands predominate. This picture stands in very great contrast to the picture of the new covenant situation the author now presents.
12:22 The opening of this verse picks up the opening verb of verse 18. The perfect tense of this verb, you have come, indicates arrival some time in the past with continued enjoyment of the results of that arrival in the present. By the use of this tense the author clearly means to stress that what he is about to describe is in some way already enjoyed by the readers. They have come to Mount Zion, a mountain of even greater significance than the mountain alluded to in the preceding verses. Mount Zion is synonymous with Jerusalem in the OT (e.g., 2 Sam. 5:6f.; 2 Kings 19:21; Ps. 2:6; 9:11). Here it is further described as the heavenly Jerusalem, that eschatological expectation referred to in Revelation 21:2 (cf. Gal. 4:26; 2 Bar. 4:2ff.) and the city of the living God, a city already mentioned as Abraham’s true goal (11:10; cf. 11:16). In 13:14 it is written: “we are looking for the city that is to come.” Thus the readers already enjoy in the present the eschatological city of the future (cf. Eph. 2:6). Here again we encounter the tension between realized and future eschatology (e.g., 1:2; 4:3; 6:5; 9:11; 10:1). Christians have experienced fulfillment, but fulfillment short of consummation. The readers are also said to have come to thousands upon thousands (lit., “myriads” or “tens of thousands”) of angels. In Deuteronomy 33:2, “myriads of holy ones” are associated with the appearance of the Lord at Sinai; in Daniel 7:10, “ten thousand times ten thousand” serve before the throne of God. These hosts are also present in the city, the heavenly Jerusalem (cf. the marriage supper of the Lamb, Rev. 19:6).
12:23 The readers have come to the church, the gathering of those who have been “called out” to form the people of God, as his firstborn, whose names are inscribed in heaven (cf. Luke 10:20). This most probably refers to the believers of the new covenant era. Together this community of believers in Christ constitutes the firstborn in that they have become the heirs of the promise (cf. Rom. 8:17). The Jerusalem Bible captures the sense of the passage well: “with the whole Church in which everyone is a ‘first-born son’ and a citizen of heaven.” The readers, in short, have come (NIV resumes the original verb) into the very presence of God, the judge of all. Despite the awesome reality of God as judge (cf. v. 29), they have no need to be afraid, like the Israelites who were afraid at Sinai even of God’s voice, because through Christ they now are free to approach God even in his role as judge. With this freedom we may compare the boldness of the Christian’s free access into God’s presence through the sacrificial work of Christ (e.g., 4:16; 6:19; 7:25; 10:19ff.). The spirits of righteous men (i.e., “people”) made perfect is probably a reference to the OT people of God. They are referred to as spirits because they await the resurrection. More particularly they are described as having been made perfect in that, together with the readers and all Christians, they have arrived at the goal, the city of God, the final purpose of God that was first expressed to them, albeit in shadowy figures. This is in accord with what the author wrote about the OT saints in 11:40.
12:24 The readers, finally, have come to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant. This climactic fact is the very basis of all that has been described beginning in verse 22. And the reference to the new covenant here redirects the reader to one of the author’s central arguments (7:22; 8:6–13; 9:15). The sprinkled blood of Jesus refers to his sacrificial work of atonement. This imagery has also been utilized earlier in the description of the levitical practice (9:13f., 19, 21), and also once in the description of the work of Christ (10:22; cf. 1 Pet. 1:2). The blood of Jesus speaks a better word (lit., “speaks better”) than the blood of Abel. In 11:4 our author took note of Abel, writing that “by faith he still speaks, even though he is dead.” Here, however, the reference appears to be to Genesis 4:10, where the blood of Abel “cries out to me from the ground.” This is the message of the blood of Abel. But the blood of Christ speaks of better things—most conspicuously of the forgiveness of sins associated with the inauguration of the new covenant (8:12; 10:17f.). Christ’s atoning blood speaks of the end of the old covenant and the establishment of the new. It is this blood that has brought the readers to the benefits of the new covenant and to their present glorious status wherein they have begun to experience the fulfillment, the goal of God’s saving purposes, the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem.
Additional Notes
12:18 A number of manuscripts (followed by NIV) include with that can be touched the word mountain (oros), thus a mountain that can be touched. The best manuscripts, however, omit the word, and its presence in some is probably due to the influence of v. 22 (cf. v. 20). The perfect tense of the verb have come implies “to come to and remain at.” This same tense is even more significant in the positive statement beginning in v. 22, where the verb is repeated. Only the words for touched (psēlaphaō) and gloom (zophos) are not drawn from LXX descriptions of the Sinai theophany.
12:19–20 The reference to a trumpet blast and voice is again drawn from the LXX of Exod. 19:16. According to the LXX of Exod. 19:13, the man or beast who touched the mountain was to be stoned or shot through with a dart. In both forms of execution the one killed is thus kept at a distance. This is in keeping with the dangerous potential for “contamination” by God’s holiness (cf. 2 Sam 6:7), even secondhand. See E. Pax, EBT, pp. 372–75. A certain irony may be seen in the fact that although Sinai and the attendant phenomena are described as “tangible,” yet neither man nor animal was allowed to touch the mountain.
12:21 The word for sight (phantazō) occurs only here in the NT. In Hellenistic literature the word is used to describe the “spectacle” of a theophany. See BAGD, p. 853. Possibly the reference to Moses’ fear and trembling is drawn from Jewish traditions concerning the giving of the law at Sinai (cf. Acts 7:32, but there the trembling is in connection with the burning bush).
12:22 The literal Mount Zion and Jerusalem, because of their great importance, eventually came to be understood as archetypes of the greater eschatological reality to come. On Zion and the new Jerusalem, see E. Lohse, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 319–38. For city of the living God, see note on 11:10. F. F. Bruce points out that the main verb you have come to implies conversion (the root occurring here, proselēlythate, produces the English word “proselyte”). A difficult question of interpretation hinges on whether the Greek word panegyris (“festal gathering”) is to be taken with what precedes, “the myriad of angels” (NIV, RSV, JB), or with what follows, “the community of the first-born” (KJV, ASV, NEB, and GNB), or whether it is to be understood independently. It is almost certainly not to be taken independently since all other discrete entities referred to in the list are connected with “and” (kai), whereas there is no connective preceding panegyris here. The presence of a connective kai following it, however, makes it most natural to associate the word with the angels, thus thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly. See Hughes’s detailed note, Hebrews, pp. 552–55. On panegyris, see H. Seesemann, TDNT, vol. 5, p. 722. On the presence of angels in the heavenly realm and in an eschatological setting, cf. Revelation, which has the highest occurrence of references to angels of any NT book. See H. Bietenhard, NIDNTT, vol. 1, pp. 101–3, and note on 1:4 above.
12:23 Much debate has taken place concerning the meaning of the church of the firstborn. Such different possibilities as the following have been suggested: angels, OT saints, the first Christians, Christians who have died, and Christian martyrs. The accompanying reference to the names which are written in heaven makes it improbable that angels are meant, since this expression always refers to believers (e.g., Phil. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 20:15). The firstborn could be interpreted to be the OT saints—first-born in the sense of preceding Christians. But given our author’s convictions about the new covenant, it is improbable that he would restrict this title to the people of the earlier covenant (cf. James 1:18, which refers to Christians as “a kind of first fruits”). On firstborn (prōtotokos), which refers to Christians only here in the NT, see W. Michaelis, TDNT, vol. 6, p. 881; Hughes, Hebrews, pp. 552–55; and note to 1:6 above. Moreover the author’s deliberate use of the word ekklēsia (church) may be intended to point to the church (cf. KJV, ASV, NASB, and JB). The word ekklēsia in itself, of course, does not necessarily signify the church; it can, as in the only other occurrence of the word in Hebrews (2:12), simply mean “congregation” or “assembly.” Thus the word is translated here “assembly” (RSV, NEB) and “gathering” (GNB). See K. L. Schmidt, TDNT, vol. 3, pp. 501–36.
Earlier our author described the community of believers, of which the readers are a part, as “God’s house” (3:6). Here it is they who are said to comprise the city of God. This is the only place in Hebrews where God is called judge (kritēs), although the idea occurs several times (e.g., 2:3; 4:1; 6:8; 9:27; 10:27, 30f., 12:29). The word spirits is not to be taken as a technical term of biblical anthropology (to be distinguished from soul), but simply as referring to the spiritual or immaterial part of human beings. See E. Schweizer, TDNT, vol. 6, pp. 445f. The word righteous (dikaios) was used earlier in 10:38 (in the quotation of Hab. 2:4) and in 11:4, where Abel is described as “a righteous man.” The word is thus ideal to describe the exemplars of faith mentioned in chap. 11. It is possible, however, as some have argued (e.g., Delitzsch, Westcott, Hughes), that this clause refers universally to people of faith in all eras, old and new. See W. J. Dumbrell, “‘The Spirits of Just Men Made Perfect,’” EQ 48 (1976), pp. 154–59. On the verb made perfect (teleioō), so important to our author, see note to 2:10.
12:24 The word for mediator (mesitēs) is also used in referring to Jesus in 8:6 and 9:15. See note on 8:6. The word for “new” in new covenant here is neos rather than kainē, as it is in the other references to the new covenant in the epistle (8:8, quoting Jer. 31:31; 9:15), but no difference is intended by this synonym. For “covenant,” see note on 7:22. For the “sprinkling” of blood (the noun rhantismos occurs only here in Hebrews), see notes on 9:7 and 9:13. This is the last occurrence of the word better (kreittōn) in the epistle. On this very important word for our author, see note to 1:4.
A Final Warning Concerning Rejection
Our author turns once again to warning his readers not to lapse from their Christian faith and commitment. This warning, however, is wonderfully counterbalanced by stress on the ultimate security of those who remain faithful. The options are thus finally put before the readers with the utmost clarity. If they reject the truth of the gospel they will not escape judgment. But if they persevere in their faith, they are to know that they are the recipients of a kingdom that has no end. This passage, which rounds out so powerfully the argument that began in 2:1 with a passage so strikingly similar to the present one, is essentially the conclusion of the author’s main argument and appeal. Chapter 13, as we shall see, functions more as an appendix to what precedes than an extension of the argument any further.
12:25 This verse and the next build upon the contrast drawn between Sinai and Zion in the preceding passage. The author has presented virtually the same argument several times already (2:1ff.; 4:11f.; 10:28f.). Arguing from the lesser to the greater (a fortiori), he points to the obvious and painful reality of the judgment experienced by the Israelites in their disobedience to the covenant at Sinai and then to the proportionately greater judgment deserved by those who turn away from the greater revelation of the new covenant. In the present instance, the Israelites refused to hear God’s voice (cf. v. 19f.), not only literally, but in the sense that they did not obey his commands (cf. 3:17f.). It was God’s voice they refused to hear when he spoke to them on earth through his servant Moses (see Deut. 5:4f.). And to refuse God’s word is to reject God himself. Thus the opening warning is that the readers not refuse him who speaks. The reference to him who warned them on earth in the events of Sinai just described (vv. 18–21) should probably not be understood as Moses, but as God speaking through Moses. If, therefore, the readers abandon their faith, they turn away from (lit., “reject”) the one (NIV adds, probably correctly, who warns us) from heaven. That is, they refuse God’s word from heaven, the gospel and all that is entailed in the fulfillment it brings. Our author wrote at the beginning of his epistle that “in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son” (1:2). This is the word from heaven that the readers are tempted to reject. But the greater the light, the more serious is its rejection. The readers are therefore to see to it that they do not reject the truth they have received.
12:26 At that time refers to the giving of the law at Sinai. It was the voice of God that then shook the earth (cf. v. 19; Exod. 19:18; Ps. 68:8). The now refers not to the past giving of the promise, but to the present expectation of its imminent fulfillment. God has promised a future shaking of the earth, and now that we are in the last days, that event can be expected in the near future. The quotation is from Haggai 2:6 (cf. 2:21). What is in view in these words from Haggai is the judgment that will take place in connection with the coming of the eschaton. The future shaking of the heavens has already been mentioned by our author in his quotation of Psalm 102:25–27 in 1:10–12 (cf. Matt. 24:29).
12:27 The writer again offers a brief midrashic commentary for his readers. The words once more from the quotation are explained as referring to the eschatological judgment (unlike the earlier “shaking”), and this shaking involves the purging of created things (lit., “as of things made”) so that (or “in order that”) only what cannot be shaken may remain. But what can be shaken will be, and this is what makes the prospect of eschatological judgment such a fearful thing (cf. v. 29).
12:28–29 The readers, however, have good reason to be thankful, for they are the recipients of an unshakable kingdom. Kingdom here refers to what may be described as the fruit of the new covenant. Thus, like the reality of the kingdom of God mentioned frequently in the NT, it is the experience of the reign of God made possible by the reconciling grace of God in Christ. It thus is the new quality of life, the new existence, made possible through the fulfillment of the promises of a new covenant. Since this is the result of God’s work, it remains secure through any future shaking of the world. By this thankful frame of mind and the faithful response that will accompany it, we will worship (or “serve”) God acceptably, namely, in a way that produces reverence and awe. Reverence and awe remain appropriate words even for the worship and service of the Christian, for God is “the judge of all” (cf. v. 23); and in the eschatological judgment, he is a consuming fire (cf. 10:30f.). This description of God is a quotation from Deuteronomy 4:24 (cf. Deut. 9:9), where Moses is exhorting the people to faithfulness to the covenant. God remains the same despite the new circumstances of the new covenant. In light of all this, the readers are to be thankful for what is theirs in Christ and to put out of mind all thoughts of lapsing from their Christianity to their former way of life.
Additional Notes
12:25 The a fortiori form of the argument is more obvious from the original, which reads “how much more shall we not escape.” The same verb for see to it (blepō) is used earlier in 3:12 in a similar connection. That the verb for refused (paraiteomai) is the same as that used in v. 19 (NIV’s “begged”) lends some support to the conclusion that it is God’s voice and not Moses’ that is refused. A contrast may be intended between the voice of Moses and the voice of God (or Christ?), as some translations suggest (e.g., NASB, NEB, JB; cf. Moffatt: “For if they failed to escape, who refused to listen to their instructor upon earth, much less shall we escape, if we discard Him who speaks from heaven”). NIV’s him who warned them on earth is rightly left ambiguous, since it may equally well be God speaking through Moses.
The word speaks, since it is the same verb as in the preceding verse, may readily be associated with the “better things” there mentioned. In the Greek text the words they and we are emphatic. The verb escape (ekpheugō) is the same as that used in the parallel passage in 2:3. Warned them translates the same verb (chrēmatizō) used in 8:5 and 11:7, both of which refer to God speaking (to Moses and Noah respectively). Heaven is clearly regarded as the abode of God (e.g., 8:1; 9:24; 12:23). Turn away translates apostrephō, which is practically synonymous with “apostatize” (cf. Titus 1:14).
12:26 The perfect tense of the Greek underlying has promised indicates the continuing validity of the promise. The quotation follows the LXX of Hag. 2:6 very closely. Our author adds the words not only and but also and transposes the order of heaven and earth with a resultant emphasis on the shaking of heaven. On the general expectation of an eschatological shaking of heaven and earth, see passages such as Isa. 2:19, 21; 13:13 (cf. 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 16:18ff.; 21:1). See G. Bornkamm, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 196–200, and G. Bertram, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 65–70. The present experience of the benefits of the eschatological age (see note on 1:2) leads naturally to an expectation of the imminence of eschatology proper.
12:27 More extensive midrashic treatments of OT quotations can be seen in 2:8f.; 3:12–4:10; 8:13; 10:8–10; and 12:7–11. The argument is that the words once more indicate something yet to come. From our author’s perspective this must refer to eschatological judgment of the created order. This judgment has as its goal the revealing of what cannot be shaken, what is a permanent part of the new creation already (cf. 13:20 “the eternal covenant”). The removing translates metathesis, a word that occurs twice earlier in Hebrews (7:12, where it refers to “a change of the law,” and 11:5, where it refers to the taking up of Enoch).
12:28–29 The only other place in Hebrews where kingdom is used positively, in the sense of “God’s kingdom,” is in the quotation of Ps. 45:6 in 1:8. Our author, if he is not dependent upon the Gospel tradition, may have drawn the term from a passage like Dan. 7:27. The present participle receiving suggests a careful balance between present and future eschatology. We are in the process of receiving the kingdom now; we will receive it finally in the future. The verb for worship is latreuō, used earlier in describing the service of the levitical priests (e.g., 8:5; 9:9; 10:2; 13:10; cf. the cognate noun in 9:1 and 6), but here, as in 9:14, it is used to describe the spiritual life of the Christian. See H. Strathmann, TDNT, vol. 4, pp 58–65. The adverb underlying acceptably (euarestōs) occurs only here in the NT (the cognate adjective occurs in 13:21, however). Reverence (eulabeia) occurs here and in 5:7 in the NT. See note on 5:7. The word for awe (deos) occurs only here in the Greek Bible. God in his role as judge is described several times in the OT in the imagery of a consuming fire (e.g., Isa. 26:11; 33:14; Zeph. 1:18; 3:8). Our author has earlier used this imagery in 10:27.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by Donald A. Hagner, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
The name of Cain’s brother. As Adam and Eve’s second son, he is mentioned in Gen. 4:29 (also v.25) as the murdered brother of Cain, who slew him out of anger at his being more favored by God for offering a better sacrifice. He is not mentioned again until the Gospels (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), where he is cast as the first representative of the “righteous blood” shed on earth. In Heb. 11:4 an explanation is given for why Abel’s sacrifice was favored over Cain’s: it was offered in faith. In Heb. 12:24 Abel’s blood is contrasted with Christ’s. The nature of the contrast is not made explicit, but the context suggests that whereas both Christ and Abel were innocent, it is Christ’s shed blood that is efficacious to mediate the new covenant.
The birthright consists of the material blessings of a father being passed on to his sons. By right, the oldest son received a double portion of the inheritance received by the children (Gen. 25:2934; Deut. 21:15–17; Luke 15:11–32). The birthright is often connected to, but needs to be distinguished from, the blessing. The blessing generally involved more of a focus on a spiritual allotment, but it crossed paths with the birthright with respect to future leadership and authority of the person (Gen. 27; 49). Royal succession was also a birthright, though God could countermand this privilege (1Kings 2:15; 2Chron. 21:3).
In the NT, Jesus’ birthright includes the throne of David, a position of honor as God’s unique Son, and creation itself (Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:4–6). The low regard with which Esau viewed his birthright is also used as a warning in Hebrews to encourage Christians not to take their spiritual inheritance lightly (Heb. 12:16–17).
The word for “blood” in the Bible is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:34), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.
The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).
Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).
The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).
During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).
Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).
The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (Rev. 12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.
The nature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning of one word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a rich array of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are those metaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church, five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom of God, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and the body of Christ.
The people of God. Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in the covenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be my people” (see Exod. 6:67; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer. 7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28; Acts 15:14; 2Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus, the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras who responded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin rests exclusively in God’s grace.
The kingdom of God. Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping of the two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete. The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and the second aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the age to come has broken into this age, and now the two exist simultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining the relationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because the church also exists in the tension that results from the overlapping of the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as the foreshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition: first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, the church is not equal to the kingdom of God.
The church and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after the resurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about the church. However, there are early signs of the church in the teaching and ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general, Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in that he gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted the beginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant. More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in two passages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesus promised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition, thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of the church overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that the kingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks the intimate association between the church and the kingdom. The second passage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlike the Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
The church and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimately related as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does not equate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christians preached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g., Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is the instrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt. 16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church become the keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
The eschatological temple of God. Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple in the future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9). Jesus hinted that he was going to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John 2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of the fulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited the church, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36). Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit in the Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1Cor. 3:16–17; 2Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; see also Gal. 4:21–31; 1Pet. 2:4–10). However, that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in the preceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for the church to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fully accomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In the meantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform their sacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb. 13:15; 1Pet. 2:4–10).
The bride of Christ. The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (see Isa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied to Christ and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, has sacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph. 5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is to be faithful to him (2Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia the official wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternal union of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9; 21:1–2).
The body of Christ. The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to the Pauline literature and constitutes one of the most significant concepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1Cor. 12:12–27; Eph. 4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is to demonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within the church, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body of Christ is the last Adam (1Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of the end time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage of the image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that the church, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to go spiritually. It is not yet complete.
A pact/compact or an agreement (Heb. berit). The NT counterpart word is diathēkē, defined as a “legal disposition of personal goods.”
The covenant is something that binds parties together or obligates one party to the other. Although there are legal implications associated with covenant, the relational aspect of covenant should not be overlooked. A covenant is best understood as a relationship with related legalities. Marriage, for example, is a covenant that establishes and defines a relationship. This perhaps explains why God chose from the realm of relationships among humans the covenant metaphor to establish and communicate his intent in divine-human relationships.
Some covenants are between persons of equal status (parity treaties); others are between a master and a servant (suzerainty treaties), between nations, between clans, and between a husband and a wife (Mal. 2:14). To “cut a covenant” at any level of society implies a solemn commitment to a relationship.
The most significant covenant relationship in the biblical material is the one between God and humankind. The uniqueness of Israel’s covenant relationship with Yahweh in contrast to all surrounding nations is established on the basis of Deut. 32:89. Although Yahweh gave the nations their inheritance, he selected Israel for his own personal care; he established a relationship with the nation independent of and prior to the nation’s association with his land.
Covenant is a dominant theme that gives cohesiveness to the structure of the OT and distinguishes the history of Israel. The phrase “covenant history” can be used to describe the biblical literature that recounts the events and episodes of Israelite life. It is a macrogenre that characterizes the historical narratives of the OT. Although this large literary corpus of historical narrative shares a covenant perspective, the individual books within the narrative corpus are noted for the attention they give to various aspects of the covenant relationship. For example, Gen. 12–50 develops the covenant promises of seed and blessing through a number of subgenres such as genealogies and family stories. Joshua, on the other hand, engages several military subgenres to recount the tension between the promise of land occupation and the responsibility of Israel to occupy the land. Covenant history is a realistic presentation of the tensions associated with the covenant relationship between Yahweh and the nation of Israel.
Finally, the psalms have a direct covenant connection emphasizing covenant worship. Psalm 119 (esp. vv. 57–64) is filled with covenant terms that relate to God’s word (testimonies, laws, oath, judgments). Marching to the place of worship designated by the covenant is reflected in the Psalms of Ascent.
Although the covenant theme is less pervasive in the NT, its christological significance is profound. The NT highlights the significant messianic role of Christ in relation to the covenants. Paul references the new covenant in both books of Corinthians (1Cor. 11:25; 2Cor. 3:6). Each celebration of the Lord’s Supper reminds us that the shed blood of Christ is the blood of the new covenant. The new covenant is cut in connection with or on the basis of his death, burial, and resurrection (1Cor. 11:25). The writer of the book of Hebrews gives detailed attention to how the new covenant functions in contrast to the old Mosaic covenant. The writer explains that Jesus is the guarantor of a better covenant (7:22; 8:6–7). Finally, Paul indicates that we are now considered ministers of the new covenant ministry (2Cor. 3:6).
Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).
Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).
The firstborn son of Isaac and Rebekah, the twin brother of Jacob, and the father of the Edomites (Gen. 25:25 26; 36). Unlike Jacob, Esau was red and hairy in appearance (hence his name [25:25]), a skillful hunter by trade, and loved by his father, Isaac.
Before the birth of the twins, Rebekah received a prophecy that the two sons would represent nations, and that the older, Esau, would serve the younger, Jacob (Gen. 25:23). This reversal of events was brought about through the trickery of Jacob and Rebekah. Jacob bargained for Esau’s birthright, which the famished Esau traded for food. Rebekah cleverly disguised her beloved son, Jacob, to feel and smell like Esau in order to fool her blind husband, which allowed Jacob to steal Esau’s blessing. Esau plotted to kill Jacob, who possessed his birthright and blessing.
Rebekah intervened to save Jacob by urging Isaac to send Jacob away to Paddan Aram to take a wife from her father’s home (Gen. 27:42–28:5). As a result, Jacob’s wife-to-be would not be a grief to his parents like Esau’s foreign wives, Judith and Basemath (26:34). Upon hearing of his parents’ disapproval, Esau added another foreign wife, Mahalath, apparently out of spite (28:8–9). Esau never exacted revenge on his brother, even though Jacob greatly feared this fate (32:3–21). Instead, the two brothers met peacefully following Jacob’s departure from Paddan Aram (33:4), and again in order to bury their father (35:29).
Genesis 36 describes Esau as the father of the Edomites, who inhabited the hill country of Seir in Edom (also Deut. 2:4–6). Even though Jacob and Esau resolved their differences, there was continued strife between the two nations that they represent, fulfilling the earlier prophecy. Edom also figures prominently within the prophetic corpus (see Obadiah; Mal. 1:2–4). Further, the relationship between Jacob and Esau and their father is used as a type in the NT (Rom. 9–11), and Esau is used to represent the godless (Heb. 12:16).
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
The first child born to a married couple. In the OT it most commonly refers to the first male child, upon whom special privileges were bestowed. The OT describes some of the privileges associated with being the firstborn son: he would receive a double portion of the inheritance (a privilege codified in the law in Deut. 21:17), the paternal blessing (Gen. 27; 48:1719), and other examples of favoritism (e.g., Gen. 43:33). The importance ascribed to the firstborn is also attested in the legislative requirement that the firstborn—people, animals, and produce—belong to Yahweh (Lev. 27:26; Deut. 15:19; and of people, note Num. 3:12–13), so stressing his primacy over Israel.
“Firstborn” language is also used figuratively in the OT. It is used of Israel as Yahweh’s firstborn in Exod. 4:22–23, wherein Pharaoh’s failure to release Yahweh’s firstborn results in the destruction of Egypt’s firstborn. God also declares the Davidic king to be his firstborn son in Ps. 89:27, highlighting the special favor that he would enjoy. “Firstborn” language can also be used figuratively to describe anything that receives a greater share, such as “the firstborn of Death” in Job 18:13 (NRSV) and “the firstborn of the poor” in Isa. 14:30 (NRSV).
Somewhat surprisingly, God does not adhere to the significance of primogeniture, frequently bestowing his favor on those who were not firstborn: Abel over Cain, Isaac over Ishmael, Jacob over Esau, Joseph and Judah over Reuben, Ephraim over Manasseh, Moses over Aaron, David over his brothers, and Solomon over Adonijah.
The NT presupposes an understanding of the significance of the firstborn. Jesus is specifically identified as Mary’s firstborn (Luke 2:7, 23). However, the description extends beyond mere notions of human primogeniture when Jesus is described as “firstborn over all creation” (Col. 1:15) and “firstborn from among the dead” (Col. 1:18; cf. Rev. 1:5). These expressions, in line with figurative use of “firstborn” language in the OT, express Jesus’ privileged place in both creation and the new creation.
Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.
The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
Family. In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing of wealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancient Israel special provisions were made for inheriting land upon the death of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; the rest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lacked sons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers, father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:111). The OT provides guidance for additional circumstances (Gen. 38:8–9; Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10; Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concern for the stability of the family and the retention of the land within a tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legal standing even while the father was still alive; his status was based on birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.
Old Testament. Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that God gave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as an inheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29; Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, not something that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7). Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”) and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God will dwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14; Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance moves beyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 the anointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land of Canaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similar expansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).
God’s relationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance. On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance (Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on the other hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer. 10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’s relationship with Israel.
New Testament. Inheritance language is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways. First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,” the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and on earth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their union with Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom. 8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in that inheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described in various ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), the kingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14), blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enacted by the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28). Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through the Spirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heaven and awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).
The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.
The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:115; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).
Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
One who serves as a facilitator of reconciliation between two parties. The role of a mediator was taken by different individuals and offices in the OT, as seen in Abraham interceding for Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 18:2232), Moses asking God to forgive Israel (Exod. 32:31–32), and the Israelites begging Moses to speak to God on their behalf (Exod. 20:19). In addition, judges, prophets, kings, and priests assumed intermediary functions at times. Mediation functions bidirectionally: from God to humans, and from humans to God. The prophets are quintessentially the first kind of mediators (God to humans), while the priests took, mostly, the second function (humans to God).
In the NT, the role of mediator is given to Christ, since he alone, as God incarnate, is qualified for it (the “one mediator between God and mankind” [1Tim. 2:5]). This implies that insomuch as reconciliation between sinful humankind and a holy God is conceivable, Christ alone can facilitate that mediation.
Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.
Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:56), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child.
The next major episode in the life of Moses concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. When it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.
Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.
Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).
After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.
However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.
Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).
Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.
After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).
The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).
The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, but others take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.
The act of repudiating sin and returning to God. Implicit in this is sorrow over the evil that one has committed and a complete turnabout in one’s spiritual direction: turning from idols—anything that wrests away the affection that we owe God—to God (1Sam. 7:3; 2Chron. 7:14; Isa. 55:6; 1Thess. 1:9; James 4:810).
Closely related to honor and respect and often translating the Hebrew and Greek words for “fear,” reverence is directed primarily toward the sacred or divine, such as God’s sanctuary (Lev. 19:30; 26:2), the temple (Ps. 5:7), God’s name (Rev. 11:18), God himself (Dan. 6:26; Mal. 2:5), and his messengers, the angel of the Lord (Josh. 5:14), and Peter (Acts 10:25). Reverence for God motivates behavior that honors him, such as just governance (Neh. 5:15), mutual submission (Eph. 5:21), purity (2Cor. 7:1), and obedience (Col. 3:22). It is an attitude of acceptable worship (Heb. 12:28), connected with humility (Jer. 44:10), which may win over unbelievers (1Pet. 3:2).
In the biblical sense, the word “sanctification” relates directly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy.” One may even argue that “holyfication” would be preferable to “sanctification” to underscore the intertwined nature of these terms.
Despite continued emphasis by many writers that “holy” speaks to separation and that “to be holy” means “to be set apart,” the biblical terms are relational and speak primarily of belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “to belong to God”; separation follows only as the exclusivity of this relationship demands it.
The gradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabled entrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’s presence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness. Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), the priests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinary Israelite. Within the ranks of the priests, the high priest went through stricter rituals of consecration (Exod. 29:18, 20–21; Lev. 8:7–24; 21:13–15), since he alone could minister in the most intensive presence of God (Lev. 16:1–17). Less holy were those of the Aaronic lineage born with physical defects. Although sufficiently holy to eat from the most holy offerings, they could not serve at the altar (Lev. 21:16–23).
Average Israelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites and priests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holiness through obedience (Lev. 11:44–45; Num. 15:40–41). Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced the average Israelite’s quality as holy. The Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21) did not transfer priestly status to any person, but it did elevate one’s holiness to a comparable level during the period of dedication.
This dynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translates directly to the NT use of hagiasmos (and cognates). Although the Gospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’ ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who had turned their piety (holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes the same point. John’s correlation of Jesus’ sanctification as God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of the Spirit’s empowerment (John 10:34–38; 17:17–19) indicates the same. Sanctification could not be separated from purpose and sending (20:21–23) and could not be reduced to a process of learning specified “Christian” behaviors. This, again, follows the pattern outlined in Acts; it was the outpouring of the Spirit that enabled the disciples to live the Christian life, which required the dynamic, creative power of God’s presence (Acts 1:8; 2:1–21).
Paul’s conversion exemplifies this tight connection between divine presence and sanctification (holiness). Not attaining the experience of God that he expected from keeping the law, Paul found the law-promised access to God in Christ. This turned him into a theologian of the Spirit who focused on the relational quality of God’s presence. In Paul’s vernacular, “divine presence,” as expressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stems from the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly, sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God and the Spirit-filled Christian. Sanctification as a process of “learning” ethics surfaces only as a derivative; ethics is a by-product of divine presence, not vice versa. The antidote to the vices of the flesh (Gal. 5:18–21) is not a contrasting list of virtues of the Spirit but rather a fruit, the product or result, of living in God’s presence (5:22–23).
For Paul, Spirit possession was synonymous with being a Christian (Rom. 8:9). His concern involved the intensity of the Spirit’s presence. The Spirit could be grieved and his presence quenched—a devastating situation to the Christian’s power and sanctity (Eph. 4:30; 1Thess. 5:19).
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.
The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
Worship of God is a critical dimension of both Testaments. One might argue that it is the very goal for which Israel and the church were formed.
The living God is the sole object of worship. He delights in the satisfying joy that his children find in him. The nature of worship is not about servant entertainment or passive observation; it is an active acknowledgment of God’s worth in a variety of humble ways.
A genuine selfless focus on the person and work of God brings about a humble response that affects one’s posture, generates works of service, and stirs up a healthy attitude of fear and respect. Knowledge of God is the foundational element in worship. God is worshiped for who he is and what he does. He is the Eternal One (Ps. 90:1; 1Tim. 1:17), unique in every way (Isa. 44:8); he is God alone (Deut. 6:4). He is distinguished by his self-existence, the self-reliant quality of his life (Exod. 3:14; Deut. 32:30). The psalmist calls God’s people to shout joyfully to their good, loving, eternal, and faithful Creator (Ps. 100).
God is worshiped as the Creator of all life. This magnificent creative work of God, declared in the opening of Genesis, is a critical focus in worship (Ps. 95:6; Rom. 1:25; Rev. 4:11). Along with this is the companion declaration that God is the redeemer. The redemptive work of God is celebrated in the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:118) and in the Song of the Redeemed (Rev. 14:3).
Worship is also associated with the royal aspects of God’s character. It was the desire of the magi to find Jesus the king and worship him (Matt. 2:1–2). The final scenes of history will be characterized by humble submission to and worship of the King of kings (1Tim. 6:15; Rev. 17:14; 19:16; cf. Rev. 15:3–4). The psalms often draw the reader’s attention to God’s royal character as a basis for worship (Pss. 45:11; 98:6).
Finally, God is worshiped as the Lord of his covenant relationship with the nation of Israel. This covenant theme and metaphor summarize the varied aspects of God’s character and his relationship with Israel. The God who brought Israel into a covenant relationship is to be sincerely and exclusively worshiped (2Kings 17:35, 38; cf. Deut. 31:20). These confessional statements about the character of God are a glorious weight that moves believers to prostrate themselves, to have an attitude of awe and respect, and to obediently serve.
Jerusalem was held by the Jebusites, who mocked David’s forces. But David captured the city, which from then on bore the title “City of David,” also called “fortress of Zion” (2Sam. 5:59). David made it his capital. Later, Solomon built the temple there, making it also the religious center of the nation (1Kings 8:1–14). “Zion” (of uncertain meaning) sometimes is a designation for the city of Jerusalem. It is said to have towers, ramparts, and citadels (Ps. 48:12–13), and Jeremiah prophesied its razing (Jer. 26:18). But it is also a designation for the mountain on which the city is built (Isa. 24:23; Zech. 8:3).
Since the God of Israel has a special relationship with Israel and its king, God’s purposes for the world often are couched in terms of Mount Zion. God set his king on Mount Zion (Ps. 2:6). The psalmist praises God, who has established Zion “forever” (Ps. 48:1–8). It is there that God is said to reign (Isa. 24:23). Nevertheless, the king on David’s throne and the inhabitants of Zion can be censured by God and found wanting (Amos 6:1). In fact, it is precisely because God identifies with the city that the people bear particular responsibility to represent his character. Thus, the time came when Zion was indeed “plowed like a field” (Mic. 3:12). Lamentations mourns Zion’s destruction numerous times. After God’s people spent a period of time in exile, God brought them back to Zion (Ps. 126). Although the ancient city was again destroyed by the Romans, Zion has become in the NT a symbol of the present heavenly dwelling place of God, entered into by faith (Heb. 12:22), and the future destiny of the saints (Rev. 14:1).
Direct Matches
“Abel” is the English spelling of two differentHebrew words. (1) Thename of Cain’s brother (Heb. hebel ). As Adam and Eve’ssecond son, he is mentioned in Gen. 4:2–9 (also v. 25) asthe murdered brother of Cain, who slew him out of anger at his beingmore favored by God for offering a better sacrifice. He is notmentioned again until the Gospels (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), where heis cast as the first representative of the “righteous blood”shed on earth. (The phrase “the blood of righteous Abel to theblood of Zechariah son of Berekiah” [Matt. 23:35] constitutes achronological “A to Z” of innocent blood shedin the OT.) He is last referred to in the book of Hebrews. In Heb.11:4 an explanation is given for why Abel’s sacrifice wasfavored over Cain’s: it was offered in faith. In Heb. 12:24Abel’s blood is contrasted with Christ’s. The nature ofthe contrast is not made explicit, but the context suggests thatwhereas both Christ and Abel were innocent, it is Christ’s shedblood that is efficacious to mediate the new covenant. The word hebelis also the same one used throughout Ecclesiastes, often translated“vanity” or “meaningless.” Abel’s name,therefore, may symbolize his short life.
(2) Thefirst part of a number of OT place names (Heb. ’abel )meaning “brook” or “meadow.” It appearsseveral times, as seen in entries that follow here.
The English word “angel” refers to nonhumanspirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel”(Heb. malak; Gk. angelos) mean “messenger” and can referto one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterlyloyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). Themessenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).
Messengerssent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were hismessengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).
OldTestament
Thereare few references to angels (plural) in the OT. In heaven theypraise God and worship him (Pss. 103:20; 148:2). God sends his angelsto accompany his people (Gen. 28:12; 32:1) and to protect them(Ps. 91:11) and once sent them to destroy Egypt (Ps. 78:49).
Anangel in human form was referred to as a “man of God”(Judg. 13:6), the same term used for a prophet (cf. 1 Kings13:14).
Angelsevoked fear and wonder. They are described as shining (Matt. 28:3;Acts 12:7). When humans bowed to worship angels, they were rebukedbecause God alone is to be worshiped (Rev. 22:8–9).
Godhimself, not being a part of the created order, cannot be seen. Inorder to communicate with people, he sometimes speaks through a formcalled “the angel of the Lord.” The angel of the Lordappeared to Abraham in human form (Gen. 18; cf. Josh. 5:13–15),but to Moses as fire (Exod. 3:2). When he spoke, it was God speaking(Exod. 3:4, 14). He guided and guarded Israel out of Egypt andthrough the desert (23:20–23). He appeared within the pillar offire or cloud (13:21–22; 14:19), being seen through the pillaron occasion as “the glory of the Lord” (16:7–10;24:16–17; 33:9–11; 40:17, 34–38), and later as hefilled Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 8:11).
Ina series of visions of the glory of the Lord (Ps. 18:7–15;Ezek. 1; Rev. 4:7) we encounter four “living creatures”called “cherubim” (Ezek. 10:20–22) that are notexplicitly identified as angels and whose visible appearance is parthuman and part animal. Their form was placed on the cover of the Arkof the Covenant (Exod. 25:18) and embroidered on the curtains of thetabernacle (26:1). Cherubim guarded the eastern entry into the gardenof Eden (Gen. 3:24), implying that Eden, the place where God appearedon earth, was now excluded from the area allocated to humankind.
InIsaiah’s vision of God’s glory, he describes, literally,“flaming ones” (Heb. seraphim) located above God andcrying, “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–7). All weknow of them is that they had six wings, whereas the cherubim hadfour (Ezek. 1:11). It may be that seraphim are not a separate classof angels but simply a description appropriate to all angels, sinceelsewhere we are told (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7) that God’s angelsare “flames of fire.”
Angelsare also called “holy ones” (Deut. 33:2) and “spirits”or “winds” (Zech. 6:5; cf. Ps. 104:4). Since God’speople are also called “holy ones” (Dan. 7:27; NIV: “holypeople”), it may be difficult to know if a given reference isto angels or people (e.g., Deut. 33:3).
Angelsare first named in the book of Daniel: Gabriel, whose name means“hero of God” (8:16; 9:21; [cf. Luke 1:19, 26]); Michael,whose name means “who is like God?” (10:13, 21; 12:1 [cf.Jude 9; Rev. 12:7]) and who is also called “one of the chiefprinces,” “your prince,” and “the greatprince.” The Hebrew word for “prince” (sar) alsomeans “commander” (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:55) and thusmight refer to Michael’s standing as a commander of God’sangelic armies (cf. Jude 9, where he is called “archangel”).During the intertestamental period, texts outside the Scriptures tendto give more attention to angels in elaborate stories, introducingsuch names as Raphael and Uriel (see Tobit, 1 Enoch, etc.).
IntertestamentalPeriod and New Testament
Duringthe intertestamental period some Jews came to think that angelsranked higher than humans, since the Greeks asserted that anythingphysical was evil and only purely spiritual beings could be holy.Increasingly detailed stories about angels served to distance Godfrom the evils of physical reality. The myth of the fall of theangels arose during this time through a series of writings claimingto come from the pen of Enoch (1 Enoch), stimulating a largenumber of other writings. Some people even went so far as to worshipangels (Col. 2:18).
Somereferences to angels are difficult to understand. In Matt. 18:10Jesus warns people to treat children well because their angels haveconstant access to God. The simplest meaning is that angelicmessengers will tell God what has happened with these children.Rhoda’s reference to Peter’s “angel” as if itwere his ghost probably reflects a local superstition (Acts 12:15) ora sectarian Jewish belief that the righteous become angels when theydie. Paul’s comment that a woman should have “authorityover her own head” (i.e., her head covered) “because ofthe angels” (1 Cor. 11:10) remains something of a puzzle,and his unique reference to the language of angels appears to behyperbole (1 Cor. 13:1).
Paulwarns us that Satan can appear as “an angel of light,”meaning that he would work through one who claimed to bring a messagein accord with the gospel (2 Cor. 11:14). The devil has his“angels/messengers” (Matt. 25:41), although we knowlittle about them.
Angelsdo not marry, reproduce, or die (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke20:35–36). The NT affirms that angels rank below God’speople and serve them (1 Cor. 6:3; Heb.1:4–14; 2:5, 16),as they did Jesus (Matt. 4:11; Mark 1:13; cf. 1 Kings 19:5–7;Luke 22:43). Angels have limited understanding or knowledge of God’splans and purposes (1 Pet. 1:12), although they reveal God’sword (Rev. 1:1). They bring the spirits of God’s people toheaven when they die (Luke 16:22) and implement God’s judgmenton the last day (Matt. 13:39, 49; 16:27; 24:31; 25:31; Mark 8:38;13:27; Luke 9:26; 2 Thess. 1:7; Rev. 14:15–19). Theyrejoice when a sinner repents (Luke 15:10). Christians already standin the greater assembly that includes the angels (Heb.12:22).Eventually, Jesus will welcome his people into the heavenly courtroomin the presence of the angels (Luke 12:8–9; Rev. 3:5). See alsoArchangel.
The birthright consists of the material blessings of a fatherbeing passed on to his sons. By right, the oldest son received adouble portion of the inheritance received by the children (Gen.25:29–34; Deut. 21:15–17; Luke 15:11–32). Thebirthright is often connected to, but needs to be distinguished from,the blessing. The blessing generally involved more of a focus on aspiritual allotment, but it crossed paths with the birthright withrespect to future leadership and authority of the person (Gen. 27;49). Royal succession was also a birthright, though God couldcountermand this privilege (1 Kings 2:15; 2 Chron. 21:3).
Inthe NT, Jesus’ birthright includes the throne of David, aposition of honor as God’s unique Son, and creation itself(Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:4–6). The low regard with whichEsau viewed his birthright is also used as a warning in Hebrews toencourage Christians not to take their spiritual inheritance lightly(Heb. 12:16–17).
Terminology
TheNT word for “church” is ekklēsia, which means“gathering, assembly, congregation.” In classical Greekthe term was used almost exclusively for political gatherings. Inparticular, in Athens the word signified the assembling of thecitizens for the purpose of conducting the affairs of the city.Moreover, ekklēsia referred only to the actual meeting, not tothe citizens themselves. When the people were not assembled, theywere not considered to be the ekklēsia. The NT records threeinstances of this secular usage of the term (Acts 19:32, 39, 41).
Themost important background for the Christian use of the term is theLXX (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, dated c. 250BC), which uses the word in a religious sense about one hundredtimes, almost always as a translation of the Hebrew word qahal. Whileqahal does not indicate a secular gathering (in contrast to ’edah,the typical Hebrew word for Israel’s religious gathering,translated by Greek synagōgē), it does denote Israel’ssacred meetings. This is especially the case in Deuteronomy, whereqahal is linked with the covenant.
Inthe NT, ekklēsia is used to refer to the community of God’speople 109 times (out of 114 occurrences of the term). Although theword occurs in only two Gospel passages (Matt. 16:18; 18:17), it isof special importance in Acts (23 times) and the Pauline writings (46times). It is found 20 times in Revelation and in isolated instancesin James and Hebrews. Three general conclusions can be drawn fromthis usage. First, ekklēsia (in both the singular and theplural) applies predominantly to a local assembly of those whoprofess faith in and allegiance to Christ. Second, ekklēsiadesignates the universal church (Acts 8:3; 9:31; 1 Cor. 12:28;15:9; especially in the later Pauline letters: Eph. 1:22–23;Col. 1:18). Third, the ekklēsia is God’s congregation(1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1).
TheNature of the Church
Thenature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning ofone word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a richarray of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are thosemetaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church,five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom ofGod, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and thebody of Christ.
Thepeople of God.Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in thecovenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be mypeople” (see Exod. 6:6–7; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer.7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28;Acts 15:14; 2 Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus,the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras whoresponded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin restsexclusively in God’s grace.
Tospeak of the one people of God transcending the eras of the OT andthe NT necessarily raises the question of the relationship betweenthe church and Israel. Modern interpreters prefer not to polarize thematter into an either/or issue. Rather, they talk about the churchand Israel in terms of there being both continuity and discontinuitybetween them.
Continuitybetween the church and Israel. Two ideas establish the fact that thechurch and Israel are portrayed in the Bible as being in a continuousrelationship. First, in the OT the church was present in Israel insome sense. Acts 7:38 suggests this connection when, alluding toDeut. 9:10, it speaks of the church (ekklēsia) in thewilderness. The same idea is probably to be inferred from theintimate association noted earlier existing between the wordsekklēsia and qahal, especially when the latter is qualified bythe phrase “of God.” Furthermore, if the church is viewedin some NT passages as preexistent, then one finds therein theprototype of the creation of Israel (see Exod. 25:40; Acts 7:44; Gal.4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev. 21:11; cf. Eph. 1:3–14).
Second,Israel in some sense is present in the church in the NT. The many OTnames for Israel applied to the church in the NT establish that fact.Some of those are “Israel” (Gal. 6:15–16; Eph.2:12; Heb. 8:8–10; Rev. 2:14), “a chosen people”(1 Pet. 2:9), “the circumcision” (Rom. 2:28–29;Phil. 3:3; Col. 2:11), “Abraham’s seed” (Rom. 4:16;Gal. 3:29), “the remnant” (Rom. 9:27; 11:5–7), “theelect” (Rom. 11:28; Eph. 1:4), “the flock” (Acts20:28; Heb. 13:20; 1 Pet. 5:2), and “priesthood”(1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10).
Discontinuitybetween the church and Israel. The church, however, is not totallyidentical with Israel; discontinuity also characterizes therelationship. The church, according to the NT, is the eschatological(end-time) Israel incorporated in Jesus Christ and, as such, is aprogression beyond historical Israel (1 Cor. 10:11; 2 Cor.5:14–21). Indeed, significant discontinuity is introduced bythe fact that the church includes Gentiles as members of Israel,without requiring them to convert to Judaism first. Gentiles enter asGentiles. However, a caveat must be issued at this point. Althoughthe church is a progression beyond Israel, it does not seem to be thepermanent replacement of Israel (see Rom. 9–11, esp. 11:25–27).
Thekingdom of God.Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrectionof Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping ofthe two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete.The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and thesecond aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the ageto come has broken into this age, and now the two existsimultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining therelationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because thechurch also exists in the tension that results from the overlappingof the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as theforeshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition:first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, thechurch is not equal to the kingdom of God.
Thechurch and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after theresurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about thechurch. However, there are early signs of the church in the teachingand ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general,Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in thathe gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted thebeginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant.More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in twopassages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesuspromised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition,thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of thechurch overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that thekingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks theintimate association between the church and the kingdom. The secondpassage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlikethe Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.
Thechurch and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimatelyrelated as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does notequate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christianspreached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23,31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g.,Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is theinstrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt.16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church becomethe keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.
Theeschatological temple of God.Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple inthe future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9;1 En. 90:29; 91:3; Jub. 1:17, 29). Jesus hinted that he wasgoing to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of thefulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited thechurch, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36).Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit inthe Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1 Cor.3:16–17; 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; seealso Gal. 4:21–31; 1 Pet. 2:4–10). However,that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in thepreceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for thechurch to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fullyaccomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In themeantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform theirsacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb.13:15; 1 Pet. 2:4–10).
Thebride of Christ.The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (seeIsa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied toChrist and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, hassacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph.5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is tobe faithful to him (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia theofficial wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternalunion of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9;21:1–2).
Thebody of Christ.The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to thePauline literature and constitutes one of the most significantconcepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12:12–27; Eph.4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is todemonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within thechurch, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body ofChrist is the last Adam (1 Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of theend time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage ofthe image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that thechurch, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to gospiritually. It is not yet complete.
Sacraments
Atthe heart of the expression of the church’s faith are thesacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper. The formersymbolizes entrance into the church, while the latter providesspiritual sustenance for the church.
Baptism.Baptism symbolizes the sinner’s entrance into the church. Threeobservations emerge from the biblical treatment of this sacrament.First, the OT intimated baptism, especially in its association ofrepentance of sin with ablutions (Num.19:18–22; Ps. 51:7; Ezek.36:25; cf. John 3:5). Second, the baptism of John anticipatedChristian baptism. John administered a baptism of repentance inexpectation of the baptism of the Spirit and fire that the Messiahwould exercise (Matt. 3:11 // Luke 3:16). Those who accept Jesusas Messiah experience the baptism of fire and judgment (which may bean allusion to undergoing the great tribulation/messianic woes thatlead into the messianic kingdom). Third, the early church practicedbaptism in imitation of the Lord Jesus (Matt. 3:13–17 //Mark 1:9–11 // Luke 3:21–22; see also John 1:32–34;cf. Matt. 28:19; Acts 2:38; 8:16; Rom. 6:3–6; 1 Cor.1:13–15; Gal. 3:27; Titus 3:5; 1 Pet. 3:21). Thesepassages demonstrate some further truths about baptism: baptism isintimately related to faith in God; baptism identifies the personwith the death and resurrection of Jesus; baptism incorporates theperson into the community of believers.
Lord’sSupper.The other biblical sacrament is the Lord’s Supper. This ritesymbolizes Christ’s spiritual nourishment of his church as itcelebrates the sacred meal. Two basic points emerge from the biblicaldata concerning the Lord’s Supper. First, it was instituted byChrist (Matt. 26:26–29; Mark 14:22–25; Luke 22:15–20;1 Cor. 11:23–25), probably as an adaptation of thePassover meal. If that is the case, then, Jesus will have introducedtwo changes into the Passover seder: he replaced the unleavened breadwith a reference to his body being given for us on the cross; hereplaced the cup of redemption with a reference to his shed blood onthe cross, the basis of the new covenant. Second, the early churchpracticed the Lord’s Supper probably weekly, in conjunctionwith the love feast (see 1 Cor. 11:18–22; cf. Jude 12). Atwofold meaning is attached to the Lord’s Supper by the NTauthors. First, it involves participation in Christ’s salvation(Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24–25), and in two ways:participating in the Lord’s Supper looks back to the death ofJesus, in which the believer now shares; participating in the Lord’sSupper looks forward to Christ’s return, the culmination pointof the believer’s salvation. Second, the Lord’s Supperinvolves identification with the body of Christ, the community offaith (1 Cor. 10:16–17; 11:27–33).
Worship
Theultimate purpose of the church is to worship God through Christ andin the power of the Holy Spirit (see, e.g., Rev. 4–5). Theearly church first worshiped in the Jerusalem temple (Acts 2:46; 3:1;5:42) as well as in the synagogue (Acts 22:19; cf. John 9:22; James2:2). At the same time, and into the near future, believers met inhomes for worship (Acts 1:13; 2:46; 5:42; cf. Rom. 16:15; Col. 4:15;Philem. 2; 2 John 10; 3 John 1, 6). Although many JewishChristians no doubt continued to worship God on the Sabbath, theestablished time for the church’s worship came to be Sunday,the day of Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10). Theearly church most probably patterned its order of worship after thesynagogue service: praise in prayer (Acts 2:42, 47; 3:1; 1 Thess.1:2; 5:17) and in song (1 Cor. 14:26; Phil. 2:6–11; Col.1:15–20), the expounding of Scripture (Acts 2:42; 6:4; Col.4:16; 1 Thess. 2:13; 1 Tim. 4:13), and almsgiving to theneedy (Acts 2:44–45; 1 Cor. 16:1–2; 2 Cor. 8–9;James 2:15–17).
Serviceand Organization
Fiveobservations emerge from the NT regarding the service andorganization of the early church. First, the ministry of the churchcenters on its usage of spiritual gifts, which are given to believersby God’s grace and for his glory as well as for the good ofothers (Rom. 12:3; Eph. 4:7–16). Second, every believerpossesses a gift of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7; Eph. 4:7). Third,it is through the diversity of the gifts that the body of Christmatures and is unified (Rom. 12:4; 1 Cor. 12:12–31; Eph.4:17–18). Fourth, although there was organized leadership inthe NT church, including elders (1 Tim. 3:1–7 [also called“pastors” and “bishops”; see Acts 20:17, 28;1 Pet. 5:1–4]) and deacons (1 Tim. 3:8–13),there does not seem to have been a gap between the “clergy”and the “laity” in the church of the first century;rather, those with the gift of leadership are called to equip all thesaints for the work of the ministry (Eph. 4:7–16). Fifth,spiritual gifts are to be exercised in love (1 Cor. 13).
To render something ritually or morally unclean and thereforeinadmissible to God’s holiness (Exod. 20:25; Lev. 18:24; Heb.12:15; cf. Num. 35:23).
The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).
Heavenand Earth
Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.
Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.
TheTheology of Land
Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).
Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).
Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.
Inheritance
Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).
Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.
Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).
Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).
Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).
Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).
Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).
The firstborn son of Isaac and Rebekah, the twin brother of Jacob, and the father of the Edomites (Gen. 25:25–26; 36). Unlike Jacob, Esau was red and hairy in appearance (hence his name [25:25]), a skillful hunter by trade, and loved by his father, Isaac.
Before the birth of the twins, Rebekah received a prophecy that the two sons would represent nations, and that the older, Esau, would serve the younger, Jacob (Gen. 25:23). This reversal of events was brought about through the trickery of Jacob and Rebekah. Jacob bargained for Esau’s birthright, which the famished Esau traded for food. Rebekah cleverly disguised her beloved son, Jacob, to feel and smell like Esau in order to fool her blind husband, which allowed Jacob to steal Esau’s blessing. Esau plotted to kill Jacob, who possessed his birthright and blessing.
Rebekah intervened to save Jacob by urging Isaac to send Jacob away to Paddan Aram to take a wife from her father’s home (Gen. 27:42–28:5). As a result, Jacob’s wife-to-be would not be a grief to his parents like Esau’s foreign wives, Judith and Basemath (26:34). Upon hearing of his parents’ disapproval, Esau added another foreign wife, Mahalath, apparently out of spite (28:8–9). Esau never exacted revenge on his brother, even though Jacob greatly feared this fate (32:3–21). Instead, the two brothers met peacefully following Jacob’s departure from Paddan Aram (Gen. 33:4), and again in order to bury their father (35:29).
Genesis 36 describes Esau as the father of the Edomites, who inhabited the hill country of Seir in Edom (also Deut. 2:4–6). Even though Jacob and Esau resolved their differences, there was continued strife between the two nations that they represent, fulfilling the earlier prophecy. Edom also figures prominently within the prophetic corpus (see Obadiah; Mal. 1:2–4). Further, the relationship between Jacob and Esau and their father is used as a type in the NT (Rom. 9–11), and Esau is used to represent the godless (Heb. 12:16).
Human Uses and Metaphors
Fire is a basic necessity for various human activities such as cooking (Exod. 12:8; Isa. 44:15–16, 19; John 21:9), warming (Isa. 44:16; Jer. 36:22; John 18:18), lighting (Isa. 50:11), manufacturing (Exod. 32:24), and refining metals (Num. 31:22–23). Fire is also an important means of maintaining the purity of God’s people, used to punish sinners (the sexually immoral [Lev. 20:14; 21:9; cf. Gen. 38:24] and the disobedient [Josh. 7:25; cf. 2Kings 23:16]) and to destroy idols (Exod. 32:20; Deut. 7:5, 25; 2Kings 10:26), chariots (Josh. 11:6, 9), and the cities of Canaan (Josh. 6:24; 8:19; 11:11; Judg. 18:27). As an essential means of worship, fire is used to burn sacrificial animals (Gen. 8:20; Exod. 29:18; Lev. 1:9; 3:3; 9:10, 13–14, 20) and grain offerings (Lev. 2:2, 9; 9:17).
The Mosaic law has several regulations concerning fire. Regarded as work, starting a fire is forbidden on the Sabbath (Exod. 35:3). It is the responsibility of the priests to keep the fire burning on the altar (Lev. 6:9, 12–13). The use of an “unauthorized fire” for sacrifice is forbidden (note Nadab and Abihu’s death [Lev. 10:1–2; cf. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1Chron. 24:2]). Also, contrary to the Canaanite religious custom, burning children is forbidden (Deut. 18:10), though the Israelites failed to keep this command and elicited God’s judgment (2Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35; note Josiah’s ban in 2Kings 23:10).
As a metaphor, fire also signifies human anger (Ps. 39:3), wickedness (Isa. 9:18), self-reliance (Isa. 50:11), evil planning (Hos. 7:6–7), lust (Prov. 6:27–28), evil speech or tongue (Prov. 16:27; James 3:5–6), and, paradoxically, kindness to an enemy (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20).
Divine Uses and Metaphors
In the Bible, God is described as the ruler of fire (Ps. 104:4; cf. 1Kings 18). Positively, God sends fire to signify his acceptance of worship (Lev. 9:24; Judg. 13:19–20; 1Kings 18:38; 2Chron. 7:1–3; cf. Luke 9:54). God also purifies his people by fire in order to provide them with abundance (Ps. 66:12), to cleanse them of their sins (Isa. 6:6–7), to refine them into the true remnant (Zech. 13:9), to restore true worship (Mal. 3:2–3), to bring forth genuine faith (1Cor. 3:13, 15; 1Pet. 1:7), and to give Christians a true joy of participating in Christ’s suffering (1Pet. 4:12). God also promises to make his people like a firepot and a flaming torch that will burn the surrounding enemies (Zech. 12:6). Negatively, God uses fire to punish the wicked and disobedient (Gen. 19:24; Exod. 9:23; Num. 11:1; 16:35; 2Kings 1:10, 12; Isa. 29:6; 34:9–10; 66:24; Ezek. 38:22; 39:6; Rev. 20:9). God is a farmer burning unfruitful trees (John 15:2, 6; cf. Matt. 3:10; 7:19; 13:40) and “thorns and briers” (Isa. 10:17). The eternal fire of hell is the place where God’s final judgment will be executed (Matt. 5:22; 25:41; Mark 9:45–49; Jude 1:7; note the “lake of fire” in Rev. 20:14–15; cf. 14:10; 21:8).
Fire is also a symbol used to image the indescribable God. It symbolizes God’s presence: a smoking firepot with a flaming torch (Gen. 15:17), the burning bush (Exod. 3:2; cf. Elijah’s expectation [1Kings 19:12]), the pillars of fire and smoke (Exod. 13:21–22; Num. 14:14), the smoke on Mount Sinai and in the tabernacle and the temple (Exod. 19:19; Num. 9:15–16; Deut. 4:11–12; Isa. 6:4). Fire marks God’s protection: the “horses and chariots of fire” (2Kings 6:17; cf. 2:11), the “wall of fire” (Zech. 2:5). Fire also represents God’s glory: God’s throne (Dan. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 1:4, 13; 10:2, 6–7), God’s form (Ezek. 1:27), the seven spirits of God before the throne (Rev. 4:5). God in his holy wrath is also likened to a burning fire (Pss. 79:5; 89:46; Isa. 5:24; 33:14; Jer. 15:14; Ezek. 21:31; 22:21; Hos. 8:5; note the expression “consuming fire” [Deut. 4:24; Isa. 33:14; Heb. 12:29]) and even to a fiery monster (Ps. 18:8; Isa. 30:33; 65:5; cf. Job 41:19–21). Fire is an important element in the description of the day of the Lord (Joel 2:3; cf. 2Pet. 3:12). God’s words in the prophet’s mouth are likened to a fire (Jer. 5:14; 20:9; 23:29).
Fire is also used to speak of Jesus. John the Baptist refers to Jesus’ baptism as one with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. 3:11). Jesus identifies the purpose of his coming as casting fire on earth (Luke 12:49). The returning Jesus is portrayed as coming in “blazing fire” (2Thess. 1:7), and the eyes of the glorified Christ are likened to “blazing fire” (Rev. 1:14; 2:18; cf. “flaming torches” in Dan. 10:6). In Acts 2:3 the Holy Spirit is portrayed as the “tongues of fire.”
That which is inconsistent with proper reverence and worshipof God. In Rom. 1:18–32 Paul describes the nature ofgodlessness as he writes about people “who suppress the truthby their wickedness” (v.18), who choose not to glorifyGod though they know he is God (v.21). Other NT texts speak ofgodless myths (1Tim. 4:7), godless chatter (1Tim. 6:20;2Tim. 2:16), or godless people like Esau (Heb. 12:16). SeveralOT passages (e.g., Job 8:13; Prov. 11:9; Isa. 10:6) also speakagainst the godless, who are fundamentally at odds with God and hiswill.
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit forassociation with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4).God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while“Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’sSpirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49),as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
Withreference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like hisuniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory(Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is,his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’sdwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy”functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly(11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels whosurround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
Acorollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy(Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps.96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While“holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,”this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is anassociated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied topeople and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly orimplicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never“from” something.
Thesymbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, thetabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3),and everything associated with them, are holy and the means wherebyGod’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God.For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these toomust be holy (Lev. 11:44–45; Heb. 12:14).
TheOT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean andclean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting atransition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People,places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration orsanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence(Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
Holinessmay be an attribute of places marked by God’s presence (Exod.3:5; Ps. 43:3). Likewise, particular times, especially the Sabbathday (Exod. 20:8), are declared holy.
God’sfaithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9).In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, andof particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10),prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7)are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tensionbetween the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holinessof its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended toact as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
Theprophet Zechariah envisions a time when the distinctions between holyand common will be meaningless (Zech. 14:20–21). While vestigesof the symbolic language of holiness remain in the NT (e.g., the“holy city” in Matt. 27:53), after the death andresurrection of Christ the NT no longer operates with the symbolicholiness of the OT. Rather, this language is appropriated to explainwhat true holiness entails in the lives of God’s people (Rom.12:1; Eph. 2:21). All Christians are holy (“saints” [Gk.hagioi] means “holy ones” [e.g., Rom. 1:7]), including insome sense the members of a believer’s family (1Cor.7:14). The holiness of God’s people is both definitive, byvirtue of the saving work of Christ (Heb. 13:12), and progressive, byeliciting, and empowering through his Holy Spirit, holy and righteousliving (Rom. 6:19; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Both divine initiativeand human activity with regard to holiness may be seen in texts suchas Lev. 20:8; Heb. 10:14. The objective of Christian discipline isthat we might share God’s holiness (Heb. 12:10).
Inheritance is an important concept that the Bible uses inseveral ways.
Family.In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing ofwealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancientIsrael special provisions were made for inheriting land upon thedeath of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; therest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lackedsons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers,father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:1–11). The OTprovides guidance for additional circumstances (Gen. 38:8–9;Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10;Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concernfor the stability of the family and the retention of the land withina tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legalstanding even while the father was still alive; his status was basedon birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.
OldTestament.Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that Godgave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as aninheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29;Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, notsomething that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7).Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”)and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God willdwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14;Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance movesbeyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 theanointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I willmake the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth yourpossession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land ofCanaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similarexpansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).
God’srelationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance.On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance(Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on theother hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer.10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’srelationship with Israel.
NewTestament. Inheritancelanguage is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways.First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,”the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and onearth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their unionwith Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom.8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in thatinheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described invarious ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), thekingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14),blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enactedby the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28).Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through theSpirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heavenand awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).
Theconnection between the believer’s inheritance and the Spirit isespecially prominent in Paul. In Gal. 4:1–7 Paul uses acombination of exodus and legal imagery to explain the gospel. BeforeChrist came, God’s people were heirs under the care ofguardians and trustees. But once Christ came and redeemed them fromunder the law, they received their full inheritance as adopted sonsand daughters. Central to that inheritance is the gift of the Spirit,who cries out, “Abba, Father.” It is this gift of theSpirit that definitively marks believers as sons and daughters ratherthan slaves. Because believers possess the Spirit as an inheritancein fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gal. 3:14; cf. Isa.44:3–5), they have moved from bondage under the law to freedomin Christ (Gal. 5:1).
Inheritance is an important concept that the Bible uses inseveral ways.
Family.In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing ofwealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancientIsrael special provisions were made for inheriting land upon thedeath of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; therest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lackedsons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers,father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:1–11). The OTprovides guidance for additional circumstances (Gen. 38:8–9;Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10;Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concernfor the stability of the family and the retention of the land withina tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legalstanding even while the father was still alive; his status was basedon birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.
OldTestament.Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that Godgave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as aninheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29;Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, notsomething that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7).Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”)and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God willdwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14;Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance movesbeyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 theanointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I willmake the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth yourpossession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land ofCanaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similarexpansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).
God’srelationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance.On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance(Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on theother hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer.10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’srelationship with Israel.
NewTestament. Inheritancelanguage is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways.First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,”the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and onearth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their unionwith Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom.8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in thatinheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described invarious ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), thekingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14),blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enactedby the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28).Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through theSpirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heavenand awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).
Theconnection between the believer’s inheritance and the Spirit isespecially prominent in Paul. In Gal. 4:1–7 Paul uses acombination of exodus and legal imagery to explain the gospel. BeforeChrist came, God’s people were heirs under the care ofguardians and trustees. But once Christ came and redeemed them fromunder the law, they received their full inheritance as adopted sonsand daughters. Central to that inheritance is the gift of the Spirit,who cries out, “Abba, Father.” It is this gift of theSpirit that definitively marks believers as sons and daughters ratherthan slaves. Because believers possess the Spirit as an inheritancein fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gal. 3:14; cf. Isa.44:3–5), they have moved from bondage under the law to freedomin Christ (Gal. 5:1).
The central city and capital of ancient Israel. The originalmeaning of the name probably is “founded by [the Canaanite god]Salem.” The Amarna letters refer to a Beth-Shalem, and itsfirst reference in the Bible is Salem (Gen. 14:18). Throughout itshistory, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus,Mount Moriah, and the City of David.
Thename “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT,particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’sdealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewedcollectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and hissovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’sjudgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:1–15;26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents thehope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8;60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag.2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NTauthors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms.Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal.4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of thenew covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24).In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the futurekingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).
Jerusalemis located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sealevel. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expandedand contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are twomajor ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the TyropoeonValley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and northof this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later thetemple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, sincethe only water source is the Gihon Spring, located in the KidronValley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they wereused for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east isthe Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by theKidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central RidgeRoute, separated by the Hinnom Valley.
EarlyHistory through the United Monarchy
Theearliest occupation was near the Gihon Spring, where Chalcolithicpottery (c. 3500 BC) and structures dating to the Early Bronze Age(c. 3000–2800 BC) were found. The Bronze Age city is mentionedin the Ebla tablets, Execration texts, and the Amarna letters.Melchizedek, the king of Salem, received gifts from Abraham andblessed him (Gen. 14). Abraham was commanded to offer Isaac as asacrifice on one of the mountains of Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:2), thelocation where Solomon later built the temple (2Chron. 3:1).The Jebusite city of the Bronze Age extended over the lower part ofthe Eastern Hill for about twelve acres, with a population of aboutone thousand.
AfterJoshua made a treaty with the Gibeonites, the king of Jerusalem,Adoni-Zedek, formed a coalition of five kings to attack Gibeon.Joshua defeated this coalition and killed the kings (Josh. 10). TheCanaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem are referred to as Amorites (Josh.10:5) and as Jebusites (Judg. 1:21; 1Chron. 11:4).
WhenDavid became king over both Israel and Judah, he made Jerusalem thepolitical, spiritual, and administrative center of his kingdom.Jerusalem became synonymous with David and was called the “Cityof David.” Transferring the ark to Jerusalem made it the newreligious center for the Israelites. David conquered the Jebusitestronghold through the tsinnor, possibly a water tunnel (2Sam.5:6–8; 1Chron. 11:4–7). He took up residence in thecity and began an extensive building program, but his vision ofJerusalem as the religious center was not fully realized until hisson Solomon became king and built the temple.
Solomongreatly expanded the city by building fortifications, the temple, andthe royal palace (1Kings 7–9). This was the first initialexpansion of the city as Solomon extended the city northward alongthe Eastern Hill, up the Ophel to the site of the present-day TempleMount. This expanded the city to about thirty-two acres, with apopulation of around five thousand. During the united monarchy,Jerusalem became the center of Israelite administration and religion.All Israelites were to come to Jerusalem three times a year forreligious festivals. Solomonic Jerusalem became the foundation forthe imagery bestowed on the city by the psalms (e.g., Pss. 46; 48;76; 84; 87; 122; 125; 132). Although major excavations were carriedout in the 1980s in the City of David, little is knownarchaeologically about the city of that period.
Fromthe Divided Monarchy to the Exile
Duringthe divided monarchy, Jerusalem was attacked by foreign forces.Jerusalem was attacked by Shishak of Egypt at the end of the tenthcentury BC (1Kings 14:25–26), by Syria and northernIsrael during the ninth century BC (2Kings 12:17; 15:37), andby Sennacherib of Assyria during the seventh century BC (2Kings18:13). Several Judean kings undertook building projects. Uzziahfortified Jerusalem by adding towers to the city walls (2Chron.26:9), and Jotham built the upper gate of the temple (2Chron.27:3).
Hezekiahgreatly expanded Jerusalem. The city doubled in size during his reignas it extended to the Western Hill (Upper City). The city thenencompassed about 125 acres, with a population of about twenty-fivethousand. It had expanded due to the influx of immigrants from thenorth when the capital of Samaria fell to the Assyrians. Hezekiahreinforced the Millo, built and rebuilt walls, and erected towers ashe extended the walls to encompass the Western Hill. In preparationfor the siege by Sennacherib, he constructed an underground watersystem to bring water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloaminside the city (2Kings 20:20; 2Chron. 32:2–4, 30;Isa. 22:11). Manasseh refortified Jerusalem with the construction ofa new outer wall (2Chron. 33:14). Jerusalem was invaded whenJehoiakim rebelled and was finally destroyed by Babylon in 586 BC.Prophets during the divided monarchy spoke of the destruction ofJerusalem, but also of its exaltation in later times (e.g., Isa.2:2–4; 24:23; Jer. 7:14; Mic. 3:12).
Archaeologicalexcavations have revealed much about Jerusalem during the time of thelater Judean kings. Several walls, towers, and fortificationsattributed to Hezekiah have been excavated in the Jewish Quarter.Hezekiah’s tunnel and the Siloam Inscription have beendiscovered, highlighting the preparations made by Hezekiah for theAssyrian siege. Several quarries and tombs have been found on theslopes of the Mount of Olives and the western slope (Ketef Hinnom) ofthe Hinnom Valley. In one of the Ketef Hinnom tombs, a silver amuletcontaining the earliest known biblical text (Num. 6:24–26) wasfound. Evidence of the Babylonian destruction was found inexcavations of the Jewish Quarter and the City of David. A group ofbullae (fired clay impressions) was found with the name of “Gemariahben-Shaphan,” probably the scribe mentioned in Jer. 36.
FromPersian to Roman Rule
Afterthe Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC), CyrusII allowed theJews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Judah became thePersian province Yehud, and Jerusalem was the administrative center.Nehemiah was appointed governor of Judea by Artaxerxes in 445 BC.Nehemiah undertook a hasty rebuilding project against the wishes ofthe local population (Neh. 2:19; 4:7). The rebuilt city wasconstricted to the area of the Eastern Hill, comprising some thirtyacres, with a population of about forty-five hundred.
Alexanderthe Great captured Jerusalem in 332 BC. This victory marked the endof Persian rule. Following Alexander’s death, his empire wasdivided between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria.PtolemyI captured Jerusalem in 320 BC, but the Jerusalem templecontinued to be the center of local Jewish life and administration.The Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and annexed Palestine around201–198 BC. The city and the temple were repaired during theirreign. During this period the Jews were struggling with theacceptance of Hellenistic culture. The high priest Jason favoredHellenization and transformed Jerusalem into a Hellenistic polis (aGreek city-state). Jerusalem became known as Antiochia, and the cityexpanded to the eastern slope of the Western Hill (Upper City). Jasonbuilt a gymnasium (1Macc. 1:11–15; 2Macc. 4:9–17).The Maccabeans revolted, and AntiochusIV destroyed the walls ofJerusalem, erected a fortress (the Akra), and desecrated the temple.Judas Maccabeus liberated Jerusalem in 164 BC, and the temple waspurified and rededicated (1Macc. 4:36–55). Hasmonean rulelasted from 142 to 63 BC. Hasmonean Jerusalem occupied the Westernand Eastern Hills. The Upper City was joined to the Temple Mount byan arched bridge across the Tyropoeon Valley (Wilson’s Arch). Afortress (the Baris) was built northwest of the temple. The Romansconquered Jerusalem in 63 BC under the rule of Pompey and endedHasmonean rule.
TheTime of Jesus and the First Century AD
Jerusalemduring the time of Jesus was largely the product of Herod the Great’spolicies and building programs. Herod was a Roman vassal and broughtHellenistic culture to the city. He built an amphitheater and atheater. Jerusalem became a city divided between the wealthy of theUpper City and the poor in the Lower City. Herodian Jerusalem’spopulation was about forty thousand, and the city extended over 230acres, not including suburbs on the Mount of Olives and west of thecity. Herod’s main building activity was the complex on theTemple Mount. Herod built a massive podium over the northern summitof the Eastern Hill. This podium stood forty-five meters high abovethe bottom of the Kidron Valley. This formed a rectangular platformfor the temple that measured 144,000 square meters. Most of theretaining walls are visible today, and the best-known section is theWestern Wall. To the south of the Temple Mount complex was the RoyalStoa, and on the northwest corner was the Antonia Fortress.
Archaeologicalresearch has uncovered several components and features of NTJerusalem. The temple rituals needed large amounts of water, andHerod built an elaborate water-delivery and storage system. Remainsof both subterranean and surface aqueducts are found from theBethlehem region to Jerusalem. Large water-storage pools are stillvisible today, such as the Serpent’s Pool in the Hinnom Valley,the Pool of the Towers of Amygdalon, the Sheep Pools, the Pool ofIsrael, as well as several other unnamed reservoirs and water-storagefeatures. Several segments of the city fortification walls were foundin various archaeological excavations, as well as remains of theAntonia Fortress and Herod’s Upper Palace with its three towersand adjacent Agora. Jewish Quarter excavations have revealed severalpalatial homes with various luxury goods, evidence of the wealth ofthe Upper City. These homes contained a courtyard surrounded by roomsand reception halls; several had private ritual baths. Excavations ofthe southern wall have revealed components of the Temple Mountcomplex, most notably the southern monumental stairway with theritual-bath complex building and the two entrances that led up to theTemple Mount. Several tombs and cemeteries have also been excavatedin the environs around the city.
Mostof Jesus’ ministry was spent in Galilee. He would have come toJerusalem at least three times each year to attend the majorfestivals. Of the Gospel writers, Luke most often referred toJerusalem and the temple as he framed his account of the deeds andteachings of Jesus. Although the events of Passion Week took place inJerusalem and its environs, the Gospels emphasize the events andteachings of Jesus, not the geography.
Theearly church started in Jerusalem with the events of Pentecost.Jerusalem was the origin and the center of the early church under theleadership of James. It seemed to serve as the center of theapostles’ authority, but the missionary zeal soon shifted theministry and focus of the church to the eastern Mediterranean.Jerusalem was destroyed in AD 70 by the Romans under the direction ofTitus. Jerusalem has been a central place for the Christian faith,whose followers acknowledge the city as the place of the death andresurrection of Jesus. Jerusalem played a major role throughouthistory and has always been a center of pilgrimage for Christians.
Mountains, both literally and metaphorically, play a highlysignificant role in biblical history, religion, and theology. Peopleare shaped by the geography of the location in which they live, andthis was no less the case with the Israelites. Mountains, aspermanent and immovable, form natural barriers and borders (Josh.15), afford protection from invaders (Judg. 6:2; Ps. 125:2), serve asplaces of refuge (Gen. 14:10; 19:17; 1Sam. 14:22), and providebases from which to launch attacks (Judg. 4:14; 9:36). Often in theBible, mountain imagery is used to describe God as eternal and astrong refuge (Pss. 36:6; 90:2; 121:1–2; 125:2).
Butmountains are also places of mystery. In the religious world of theancient Near East, gods were thought to either live or make theirpresence known on mountains—portals, as it were, between heavenand earth. The garden of Eden is regarded by Ezekiel as having beenlocated on “the holy mount of God” (Ezek. 28:13–14).God mysteriously reveals himself in a flame of fire to Moses at MountHoreb (Exod. 3), and then later from that same mountain God gives thelaw amid thunder, fire, and smoke; the people are not allowed toapproach the mountain lest they die (Exod. 19). Moses has anothertheophany on the same mountain (Exod. 33:17–34:8), and Elijahhas a very Moses-like encounter there with God as well (1Kings19).
Becauseof this association between gods and mountains, it was the norm tobuild temples for deities on mountaintops. Thus, the temple inJerusalem is built on Mount Zion, which is also the place whereAbraham had been ready to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:2; 2Chron.3:1). Thus, this mountain is the “mountain of the Lord”(Gen. 22:14), the mountain of God’s “inheritance”(Exod. 15:17), his “holy mountain” (Ps. 48:1). Even theplans for the tabernacle and temples are given on mountaintops (Exod.25:40; 26:30; 27:8; 2Sam. 24:18–25; 1Chron.21:18–22:1; 28:11–12; Ezek. 40:1–2; Rev. 21:10). Itshould not escape notice that Israel’s legal tradition andliturgical tradition are both associated with mountains, Sinai andZion (Jerusalem).
Itis no wonder, then, that mountains play such a significant role inthe NT and the life of Christ. On top of a high mountain, the deviltempts Jesus to worship him (Matt. 4:8–10). Jesus proclaims thelaw of the kingdom from a mountain (5:1). On a mountain, Jesuschooses to reveal to his disciples his true glory in thetransfiguration (17:1). After his resurrection, Jesus has hisdisciples meet him at a mountain, from which he makes his declarationof authority and gives the Great Commission (28:16–20). ButJesus and the NT authors also “relocate” the place wherepeople meet with God from any particular location, mountain orotherwise, to the human spirit and to the church (John 4:21–24;Heb. 12:22–23).
A word derived from the Greek myrias, meaning “tenthousand.” “Myriad” is sometimes used inexactly inGreek and English translations to refer to a very large number, oftenof angelic beings (e.g., Heb. 12:22; Rev. 5:11).
Both Ezekiel and Revelation envision a new Jerusalem and usesimilar imagery to describe it and to emphasize God’s presencein the city (Ezek. 48:30–35; Rev. 21:1–22:5). Accordingto Revelation, the throne of God, the Lamb, and the river of life arepresent in the new Jerusalem, which comes down from heaven, is madeof gold and glass, is adorned with jewels, and is in the shape of acube. Only those with names in the Lamb’s book of life willdwell in the city (Rev. 21:27). The city represents a new, spiritualorder (Gal. 4:25–26; Heb. 12:22). See also Eschatology;Jerusalem.
Closely related to honor and respect and often translatingthe Hebrew and Greek words for “fear,” reverence isdirected primarily toward the sacred or divine, such as God’ssanctuary (Lev. 19:30; 26:2), the temple (Ps. 5:7), God’s name(Rev. 11:18), God himself (Dan. 6:26; Mal. 2:5), and his messengers,the angel of the Lord (Josh. 5:14), and Peter (Acts 10:25). Reverencefor God motivates behavior that honors him, such as just governance(Neh. 5:15), mutual submission (Eph. 5:21), purity (2Cor. 7:1),and obedience (Col. 3:22). It is an attitude of acceptable worship(Heb. 12:28), connected with humility (Jer. 44:10), which may winover unbelievers (1Pet. 3:2).
The word “root” occurs in a literal sense in Job30:4, but ordinarily it is used in a figurative sense. Its mostprevalent connotation refers to the foundation or core of a matter orone’s life (Job 28:9; Prov. 12:3, 12; Isa. 14:30). It also, byanalogy, signifies that which gives life to the plant (Matt. 13:6;Rom. 11:17). When pictured near water, roots symbolize prosperity(Job 29:19; Ezek. 31:7), even a blessing of the Lord (Job 8:17; Jer.17:8).
Theterm sometimes indicates the lowest part or depth (Job 36:30). It canalso carry the idea of origin, as in that of bitterness or evil(Deut. 29:18; 1Tim. 6:10; Heb. 12:15), or the cause of a matter(Job 19:28).
Frequently,the word is used to describe something established, as in a kingdom(Ps. 80:9, 15; Isa. 27:6; 37:31; 40:24; Jer. 12:2). It emphasizespositively that which is secure (Prov. 12:3, 12) or negatively thatwhich is uprooted or destroyed (1Kings 14:15).
Finally,the word may refer to the offspring of a family (Judg. 5:14; Ps.80:15), ultimately pointing to the coming Messiah (Isa. 11:1, 10;53:2; Rev. 5:5; 22:16) as the heir through whom the dynasty iscompleted.
Sanctificationand Holiness
Inthe biblical sense, the word “sanctification” relatesdirectly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy” (qadoshand hagiosrespectively). One may even argue that “holy-fication”would be preferable to “sanctification” to underscore theintertwined nature of these terms. In Scripture, English terms suchas “holy”/“holiness,”“consecrate”/“consecration,” and“sanctify”/“sanc-ti-fi-cation”/“saints”express cognates of qadosh/hagios.
Despitecontinued emphasis by many writers that “holy” speaks toseparation and that “to be holy” means “to be setapart,” the biblical terms are relational and speak primarilyof belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “tobelong to God”; separation follows only as the exclusivity ofthis relationship demands it.
Qadoshis God’s adjective. God’s character defines the meaningof “holy,” not the other way around. Holy, then, cannotbe reduced to religious notions of purity (and/or exclusivity) butrather must be understood in light of the full expression of God’scharacter and will. While other adjectives such as “great,”“majestic,” and “powerful” can also describehumans, God exclusively determines the meaning of the adjectiveqadosh(hagios).“Holy” has no meaning apart from God. Humans (and things)become holy only as they belong to God. For example, an ordinarytable dedicated to God becomes aholy table. The peoplebelonging to God area holypeople. Different from otherspirits, the Holy Spirit belongs to God and expresses his presenceexclusively (cf. Isa. 6:3; 52:1).
Itfollows that holiness and divine presence are tightly interwoven. Godopens the door into his presence, enabling sanctification (John17:18; 1Cor. 1:2; Heb. 10:10), and he calls for his people notto violate his relational presence (2Cor. 7:1; 2Tim.2:21; Heb. 12:14). Sanctification, then, is not as much an intrinsic“either/or” quality (granted or not granted) as it is arelational “more or less” quality based on God’sdynamic presence. Put differently, the biblical perspective onholiness resists reduction to a mere “holy versus profane”dichotomy and cannot be reduced to a simple declaration (granted!) orto a specific list of godly requirements (dos and don’ts).
OldTestament
Thegradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabledentrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’spresence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness.Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), thepriests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinaryIsraelite. Within the ranks of the priests, the high priest wentthrough stricter rituals of consecration (Exod. 29:1–8, 20–21;Lev. 8:7–24; 21:13–15), since he alone could minister inthe most intensive presence of God (Lev. 16:1–17). Less holywere those of the Aaronic lineage born with physical defects.Although sufficiently holy to eat from the most holy offerings, theycould not serve at the altar (Lev. 21:16–23).
AverageIsraelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites andpriests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holinessthrough obedience (Lev. 11:44–45; Num. 15:40–41).Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced theaverage Israelite’s quality as holy. The Nazirite vow (Num.6:1–21) did not transfer priestly status to any person, but itdid elevate one’s holiness to a comparable level during theperiod of dedication.
Thisdynamic connection between divine presence and sanctification becomeseven more evident in the prophets. They were “holy men”because they were endowed with the divine spirit, and as the level ofthis endowment varied from prophet to prophet, so did theireffectiveness as God’s messengers. False prophets still carriedthe name, but their lack of devotion to Israel’s God causedinaccuracy in their message (e.g., Jer. 6:13–14).
NewTestament
Thisdynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translatesdirectly to the NT use of hagiasmos (and cognates). Although theGospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who had turned their piety(holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes thesame point. John’s correlation of Jesus’ sanctificationas God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of theSpirit’s empowerment (John 10:34–38; 17:17–19)indicates the same. Sanctification could not be separated frompurpose and sending (20:21–23) and could not be reduced to aprocess of learning specified “Christian” behaviors.This, again, follows the pattern outlined in Acts; it was theoutpouring of the Spirit that enabled the disciples to live theChristian life, which required the dynamic, creative power of God’spresence (Acts 1:8; 2:1–21).
Paul’sconversion exemplifies this tight connection between divine presenceand sanctification (holiness). Not attaining the experience of Godthat he expected from keeping the law, Paul found the law-promisedaccess to God in Christ. This turned him into a theologian of theSpirit who focused on the relational quality of God’s presence.In Paul’s vernacular “divine presence,” asexpressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stemsfrom the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly,sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God andthe Spirit-filled Christian. Sanctification as a process of“learning” ethics surfaces only as a derivative; ethicsis a by-product of divine presence, not vice versa. The antidote tothe vices of the flesh (Gal. 5:18–21) is not a contrasting listof virtues of the Spirit but rather a fruit, the product or result,of living in God’s presence (Gal. 5:22–23).
ForPaul, Spirit possession was synonymous with being a Christian (Rom.8:9). His concern involved the intensity of the Spirit’spresence. The Spirit could be grieved and his presence quenched—adevastating situation to the Christian’s power and sanctity(Eph. 4:30; 1Thess. 5:19).
The KJV uses “Sion” to translate the Hebrew wordsi’onin Deut. 4:48, referring to Mount Hermon (NIV: “Sirion”);the Hebrew word tsiyyonin Ps. 65:1, referring to Zion (NIV: “Zion”); and theGreek form of “Zion,” Siōn,in Matt. 21:5; John 12:15; Rom. 9:33; 11:26; Heb. 12:22; 1Pet.2:6; Rev. 14:1 (NIV: “Zion”).
Worship of God is a critical dimension of both Testaments.One might argue that it is the very goal for which Israel and thechurch were formed.
Terminology
Ourunderstanding of worship is informed by the terms, practices,exhortations, and warnings of Scripture. The worship vocabulary inboth Testaments provides insight into the personal dispositions andposture associated with worship focused on the person of God. Thefirst set of biblical terms concerns the posture of the worshiper.The Hebrew terminology communicates the idea of bowing down andfalling prostrate before the sovereign and worthy God (Ps. 95:6;1Chron. 29:20). NT words bear a similar idea of humbleacknowledgment of God’s authority with a reverent prostrateposition (Matt. 28:9; Rev. 5:14).
Thesecond set of worship terms concerns service. In the OT, the worshipof God includes the idea of serving with a view to bringing honor tohim (Exod. 3:12; Mal. 3:14, 18). In the NT, worship bears the nuanceof serving in the sense of carrying out religious duties (Heb.12:28). This set of terminology has a priestly connotation to it. TheOT priests and the NT believers (1Pet. 2:5) serve God withtheir individual lives and their routines of life as acceptableofferings.
Thefinal set of terms describes the attitude or disposition of worship.This word group includes terms such as “fear,” “awe,”and “dread,” which initially seem out of place in thecontext of worship. However, the terminology serves to inculcate anattitude of genuine respect. Yahweh is the awesome God, who is to befeared (Exod. 3:6; 15:11). Israel is to love and trust who God is andwhat God says in promise or in warning. The fear that one is to havefor God involves a respect for him, a reverence for his divine worth(Col. 3:22; Rev. 11:18).
Godas the Object of Worship
Theworship terminology sets the focus of worship. The living God is thesole object of worship. He delights in the satisfying joy that hischildren find in him. The nature of worship is not about servantentertainment or passive observation; it is an active acknowledgmentof God’s worth in a variety of humble ways.
Agenuine selfless focus on the person and work of God brings about ahumble response that affects one’s posture, generates works ofservice, and stirs up a healthy attitude of fear and respect.Knowledge of God is the foundational element in worship. God isworshiped for who he is and what he does. He is the Eternal One (Ps.90:1; 1Tim. 1:17), unique in every way (Isa. 44:8); he is Godalone (Deut. 6:4). He is distinguished by his self-existence, theself-reliant quality of his life (Exod. 3:14; Deut. 32:30). Thepsalmist calls God’s people to shout joyfully to their good,loving, eternal, and faithful Creator (Ps. 100).
Godis worshiped as the Creator of all life. This magnificent creativework of God, declared in the opening of Genesis, is a critical focusin worship (Ps. 95:6; Rom. 1:25; Rev. 4:11). Along with this is thecompanion declaration that God is the redeemer. The redemptive workof God is celebrated in the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1–18) andin the Song of the Redeemed (Rev. 14:3).
Worshipis also associated with the royal aspects of God’s character.It was the desire of the magi to find Jesus the king and worship him(Matt. 2:1–2). The final scenes of history will becharacterized by humble submission to and worship of the King ofkings (1Tim. 6:15; Rev. 17:14; 19:16; cf. Rev. 15:3–4).The psalms often draw the reader’s attention to God’sroyal character as a basis for worship (Pss. 45:11; 98:6).
Finally,God is worshiped as the Lord of his covenant relationship with thenation of Israel. This covenant theme and metaphor summarize thevaried aspects of God’s character and his relationship withIsrael. The God who brought Israel into a covenant relationship is tobe sincerely and exclusively worshiped (2Kings 17:35, 38; cf.Deut. 31:20). These confessional statements about the character ofGod are a glorious weight that moves believers to prostratethemselves, to have an attitude of awe and respect, and to obedientlyserve.
TheForm of Worship
Althoughthe form of worship looks different in each Testament, the essentialelements of worship are constant. In the OT, the priests primarilyled the worship of God. In addition, the duties of the king (Deut.17:18–20) and of the prophet (18:14–22) had worshipimplications and responsibilities. Ideally, these threeadministrators were to work together to ensure a healthy quality ofcovenant life for the nation. Worship in both Testaments has bothcorporate and individual aspects.
OTworship was organized around sacred places such as designatedlocations (Gen. 3:8; 12:7), the tabernacle (Exod. 29:42), and thetemple (1Kings 8; cf. Rev. 21–22). In addition, therewere sacred times in the calendar of Israel for celebration of theappointed feasts (Lev. 23). The three main feasts in Israel’scalendar are Unleavened Bread, Weeks, and Tabernacles (Deut. 16:16;cf. Exod. 34:23). The sacred actions of worship for the nationinvolved burnt offerings, meal or tribute offerings, peace offerings,sin offerings, and guilt offerings (Lev. 1–5).
Theregulation and routine of OT worship never were intended to be merelydutiful. The routine of worship was to manifest a love for God andfor the covenant community (Deut. 6:1–5; Mal. 2:10). Theprophets often challenged Israel to have a heart for God and at timescalled upon them to consider the emptiness of their worship routine(Isa. 1:11). The heart of worship was nurtured in psalms of praiseand lament and in the call to remember God (Pss. 42; 77:11).
Theform of NT worship is not distinguished with the same externals as inthe OT. However, similar core beliefs underlie the form and practiceof NT worship. The distinguishing feature in this new era is thefinal and sufficient work of Christ (Heb. 9–10). As withprevious revelation, worship is not anthropocentric; it is joyfullyChristocentric, based on the gospel (1Cor. 15:1–5).Christ and his work replace the OT temple. Jesus is the greatertemple that has come (Matt. 12:6). Sacrifice is no longer limited toany particular geographic location, but instead involves the offeringof oneself (Rom. 12:1–2) along with the presentation ofspiritual sacrifices acceptable to God (1Pet. 2:4–5). NTworship is regulated by the Spirit and truth (John 4:20–24).This type of worship is distinguished by the word of God, the Spirit,preaching, prayer, Spirit-filled service, and mutual edification. NTworship also includes the regular celebration of the ordinances ofbaptism and the Lord’s Supper (Acts 2:42–47) within thecontext of the local church.
Jerusalem was held by the Jebusites, who mocked David’sforces. But David captured the city, which from then on bore thetitle “City of David,” also called “fortress ofZion” (2Sam. 5:5–9). David made it his capital.Later, Solomon built the temple there, making it also the religiouscenter of the nation (1Kings 8:1–14). “Zion”(of uncertain meaning) sometimes is a designation for the city ofJerusalem. It is said to have towers, ramparts, and citadels (Ps.48:12–13), and Jeremiah prophesied its razing (Jer. 26:18). Butit is also a designation for the mountain on which the city is built(Isa. 24:23; Zech. 8:3).
Sincethe God of Israel has a special relationship with Israel and itsking, God’s purposes for the world often are couched in termsof Mount Zion. God set his king on Mount Zion (Ps. 2:6). The psalmistpraises God, who has established Zion “forever” (Ps.48:1–8). It is there that God is said to reign (Isa. 24:23).Nevertheless, the king on David’s throne and the inhabitants ofZion can be censured by God and found wanting (Amos 6:1). In fact, itis precisely because God identifies with the city that the peoplebear particular responsibility to represent his character. Thus, thetime came when Zion was indeed “plowed like a field”(Mic. 3:12). Lamentations mourns Zion’s destruction numeroustimes. After God’s people spent a period of time in exile, Godbrought them back to Zion (Ps. 126). Although the ancient city wasagain destroyed by the Romans, Zion has become in the NT a symbol ofthe present heavenly dwelling place of God, entered into by faith(Heb. 12:22), and the future destiny of the saints (Rev. 14:1).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Hebrews 12:14-29
is mentioned in the definition.
The phrase “book of life” occurs eight times inthe Bible (Ps. 69:28; Phil. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12, 15;21:27). The image may originate from the practice of keepinggenealogical records or a registry of citizens in which the names ofindividuals were recorded. Some have suggested that it is afigurative record of all the living, from which the unsaved areeventually erased. But more likely the phrase metaphoricallyexpresses the omniscience of God, who knows all those whom he haspredestined to eternal life. In Ps. 69:28 being “blotted out”of the Book of Life probably refers to the fate of experiencing apremature earthly death (cf. Exod. 32:32–33). But since itapplies to God’s enemies, it also carries with it the overtonesof eternal damnation. The promise made to those who overcome thatthey will not be blotted out of the Book of Life assures them oftheir final victory (Rev. 3:5; cf. John 5:24–25). At the finaljudgment, those not found written in the Book of Life are destined toeternal separation from God in the lake of fire (Rev. 20:12–15).The final use of the phrase in “the Lamb’s book of life”indicates that the record belongs to Christ, who purchased theredemption of all those found recorded in the book (Rev. 21:27). Forsimilar phrases and concepts, see Pss. 9:5; 51:1; 139:16; Isa. 4:3;Dan. 7:10; 12:1; Mal. 3:16; Luke 10:20; Heb. 12:23.
Chastening sometimes refers to the discipline of a parent toa child. Parents are to chasten their children (Deut. 21:18), “forin that there is hope” (Prov. 19:18). However, the mostfrequent and significant biblical references are to God’sdiscipline of his own spiritual children. In Heb. 12 the authorencourages his readers not to “grow weary and lose heart”(v. 3), because “the Lord disciplines the one he loves”(v. 6); rather, this discipline should be a reminder that God istreating them as children (v. 7). Furthermore, if people respecttheir human fathers for administering discipline, “How muchmore should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live!”(v. 9). Certainly, “No discipline seems pleasant at thetime, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest ofrighteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it”(v. 11). God’s lesson is that “those whom I love Irebuke and discipline” (Rev. 3:19), and that we can trust thatGod knows what he is doing when allowing difficulties in our lives.
Chastening sometimes refers to the discipline of a parent toa child. Parents are to chasten their children (Deut. 21:18), “forin that there is hope” (Prov. 19:18). However, the mostfrequent and significant biblical references are to God’sdiscipline of his own spiritual children. In Heb. 12 the authorencourages his readers not to “grow weary and lose heart”(v. 3), because “the Lord disciplines the one he loves”(v. 6); rather, this discipline should be a reminder that God istreating them as children (v. 7). Furthermore, if people respecttheir human fathers for administering discipline, “How muchmore should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live!”(v. 9). Certainly, “No discipline seems pleasant at thetime, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest ofrighteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it”(v. 11). God’s lesson is that “those whom I love Irebuke and discipline” (Rev. 3:19), and that we can trust thatGod knows what he is doing when allowing difficulties in our lives.
Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.
Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).
Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.
Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.
Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.
ArchaeologicalEvidence
Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.
Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.
EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.
MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.
IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.
Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.
OldTestament
Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.
Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).
Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).
Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.
InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.
Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).
NewTestament
TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.
Inheritance is an important concept that the Bible uses inseveral ways.
Family.In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing ofwealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancientIsrael special provisions were made for inheriting land upon thedeath of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; therest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lackedsons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers,father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:1–11). The OTprovides guidance for additional circumstances (Gen. 38:8–9;Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10;Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concernfor the stability of the family and the retention of the land withina tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legalstanding even while the father was still alive; his status was basedon birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.
OldTestament.Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that Godgave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as aninheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29;Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, notsomething that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7).Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”)and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God willdwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14;Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance movesbeyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 theanointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I willmake the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth yourpossession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land ofCanaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similarexpansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).
God’srelationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance.On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance(Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on theother hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer.10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’srelationship with Israel.
NewTestament. Inheritancelanguage is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways.First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,”the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and onearth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their unionwith Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom.8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in thatinheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described invarious ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), thekingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14),blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enactedby the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28).Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through theSpirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heavenand awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).
Theconnection between the believer’s inheritance and the Spirit isespecially prominent in Paul. In Gal. 4:1–7 Paul uses acombination of exodus and legal imagery to explain the gospel. BeforeChrist came, God’s people were heirs under the care ofguardians and trustees. But once Christ came and redeemed them fromunder the law, they received their full inheritance as adopted sonsand daughters. Central to that inheritance is the gift of the Spirit,who cries out, “Abba, Father.” It is this gift of theSpirit that definitively marks believers as sons and daughters ratherthan slaves. Because believers possess the Spirit as an inheritancein fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gal. 3:14; cf. Isa.44:3–5), they have moved from bondage under the law to freedomin Christ (Gal. 5:1).
The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).
Heavenand Earth
Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.
Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.
TheTheology of Land
Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).
Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).
Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.
Inheritance
Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).
Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.
Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).
Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).
Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).
Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).
Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).
Those who bring rest, harmony, and well-being into theirenvironment. Jesus pronounces blessing upon peacemakers and promisesthat God will call them his children (Matt. 5:9; see also Rom. 14:19;Heb. 12:14). We are to make peace with God, other people, and therest of creation. Within the context of the Sermon on the Mount, thevehicles for peace are love and forgiveness (Matt. 5:39).
Inheritance is an important concept that the Bible uses inseveral ways.
Family.In the ancient world every culture had customs for the passing ofwealth and possessions from one generation to the next. In ancientIsrael special provisions were made for inheriting land upon thedeath of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; therest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lackedsons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers,father’s brothers, next of kin (Num. 27:1–11). The OTprovides guidance for additional circumstances (Gen. 38:8–9;Num. 36:6; Lev. 25:23–24; Deut. 21:15–17; 25:5–10;Ruth 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concernfor the stability of the family and the retention of the land withina tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legalstanding even while the father was still alive; his status was basedon birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.
OldTestament.Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that Godgave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as aninheritance (Gen. 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Num. 34:1–29;Deut. 12:10). This inheritance is God’s gracious gift, notsomething that Israel earned by its righteousness (Deut. 9:4–7).Descriptions of the land (“flowing with milk and honey”)and its fertility portray this gift as a new Eden, where God willdwell with his people (Exod. 3:8, 17; Lev. 20:24; Num. 16:13–14;Deut. 11:9–12). In some texts the language of inheritance movesbeyond the land of Canaan to an international scope. In Ps. 2:8 theanointed king recounts God saying to him, “Ask me, and I willmake the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth yourpossession.” This expansion of inheritance from the land ofCanaan to the ends of the earth prepares the way for a similarexpansion in the NT (see Rom. 4:13).
God’srelationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance.On the one hand, Israel is described as God’s inheritance(Deut. 32:9; 1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings 8:51–53); on theother hand, God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26; Jer.10:16; 51:19). This mutuality expresses the intimacy of God’srelationship with Israel.
NewTestament. Inheritancelanguage is taken up in the NT and expanded in a variety of ways.First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things,”the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and onearth (Matt. 28:18–20; Heb. 1:2–5). Through their unionwith Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rom.8:17), having been qualified by the Father to share in thatinheritance (Col. 1:12). What believers inherit is described invarious ways: the earth (Matt. 5:5), eternal life (Luke 10:25), thekingdom (1Cor. 6:9–10; James 2:5), salvation (Heb. 1:14),blessing (Heb. 12:17; 1Pet. 3:9). This inheritance was enactedby the death of Christ and sealed by his blood (Heb. 9:15–28).Believers experience the benefits of this inheritance through theSpirit now (Eph. 1:14, 18), but its fullness is reserved in heavenand awaits the consummation (1Pet. 1:4–6).
Theconnection between the believer’s inheritance and the Spirit isespecially prominent in Paul. In Gal. 4:1–7 Paul uses acombination of exodus and legal imagery to explain the gospel. BeforeChrist came, God’s people were heirs under the care ofguardians and trustees. But once Christ came and redeemed them fromunder the law, they received their full inheritance as adopted sonsand daughters. Central to that inheritance is the gift of the Spirit,who cries out, “Abba, Father.” It is this gift of theSpirit that definitively marks believers as sons and daughters ratherthan slaves. Because believers possess the Spirit as an inheritancein fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gal. 3:14; cf. Isa.44:3–5), they have moved from bondage under the law to freedomin Christ (Gal. 5:1).
Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.
Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).
Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.
Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.
Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.
ArchaeologicalEvidence
Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.
Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.
EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.
MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.
IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.
Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.
OldTestament
Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.
Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).
Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).
Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.
InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.
Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).
NewTestament
TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.
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1. Blood Ties
Illustration
John R. Steward
During World War II the Red Cross would provide blood for wounded soldiers. They had a practice of giving the name of the donor to the recipient so that the soldier could write and thank the donor if he should desire.
The Red Cross also had a policy that the blood that was given would be made available to anyone who would need it. That meant that even enemy soldiers could have the blood to save their lives.
Because the names of the donors were available, the medics developed a custom when the blood was needed for a Nazi officer. When a Nazi officer needed blood the medics would find a bottle of blood whose donor had a Jewish name. They would tell the Nazi that they had the blood that was needed to save his life. Then they would tell him that the blood was from a Jewish donor. Most of the Nazi officers would receive the blood but there were some who absolutely refused to receive it into their veins.
Adapted from Parables, Etc. (Platteville, Colorado: Saratoga Press), June 1985.
2. The Last Meal
Illustration
Larry Powell
Perhapsyou have visited the Upper Room Chapel in Nashville, Tennessee, and had the opportunity to meditate before the marvelous wood carving and its appointments which so dramatically depict the Last Supper. One of the mysterious features of this particular carving is that no matter where you kneel before the figure of Christ, his eyes gaze strangely into yours. So it must have seemed to the disciples gathered around the table in Jerusalem on that fateful evening. How much more intense it must have been for Judas, and we can but wonder where his eyes were fixed when Jesus uttered those terrible words. "He who has dipped his hand in the dish with me, will betray me" (Matthew 26:23).
So far as the disciples were concerned, they had gathered, as they had done since childhood, to partake of the traditional Passover meal. The streets of Jerusalem were crowded with pious Jews who had come into the city for this express purpose. The ritual was always the same: while at the table, the story of the escape from Egypt would be recounted ... there would be special foods on the table and unleavened bread would be eaten as a reminder of the haste in which the Exodus people had been forced to flee Egypt ... it was always the same.
To the disciples’ surprise however, Jesus suddenly departed from the familiar references; "And he took bread, and gave thanks, and broke it, and gave unto them saying, ‘This is my body which is given for you: this do in remembrance of me.’ Likewise also the cup after supper saying, ‘This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.’ " Jesus had dramatically transformed the Passover supper into the Lord’s Supper on the evening of his "last supper" with them (see also Mark 14:22-24 and Matthew 26:26-29).
The Lord’s Supper:
1. Is a sacrament, meaning that it was instituted by Christ and commanded to be continued "till he come." In Paul’s familiar passage, used in the sacrament ritual, he adds, "For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye proclaim the Lord’s death till he comes" (1 Corinthians 11:26).
2. Symbolizes the new covenant. The Old Testament covenant of the Law was sealed with the blood of animal sacrifice. However, this covenant had failed. The prophets themselves had said, "Behold, the days will come, saith Jehovah, that I will make a new convenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah." The covenant of Law was being superseded by the new convenant of love, sealed by the blood of Christ.
3. Uses of common elements. In addition to using the traditional elements of the Passover, bread and wine, Jesus realized that each day when his followers partook of their meals, two things were certain to be on the table ... bread and wine. Consequently, even an ordinary meal would include reminders of the new covenant.
4. Was observed anxiously. Devout early Christians met daily to observe the sacrament in the prayerful hope that Jesus would return while they were sharing the sacred meal. In time, the early Church observed the sacrament each Sunday, a practice continued until the Reformation. Oddly enough, in Scotland, during the sixteenth century, it was observed in the country twice and in town four times a year.
5. Is called the eucharist, meaning the "thanksgiving," based on the passage, "He took a cup, and when he had given thanks...."
Perhaps John Calvin spoke for each of us when he admitted that "the matter is too sublime for me to be able to express, or even to comprehend ... I rather experience it, than understand it."
3. Life Can Be Dangerous
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
The Road Runner cartoons, Wile E. Coyote and all the Acme products he bought, may be the reason we have so many warning labels on products toady. Warning labels point to dangers in life. Most warning labels make sense but some of them are just downright ridiculous and makes you wonder WHY a company had to put that warning label on their product.
There are a couple of websites devoted to nothing but inane warning labels. Here's a few of them.
"Do not put in mouth." On a box of bottle rockets.
"Not dishwasher safe." On a remote control for a TV.
"Do not attempt to stop the blade with your hand." In the manual for a Swedish chainsaw.
"Warning: May contain nuts." On a package of peanuts.
"Caution: The contents of this bottle should not be fed to fish." On a bottle of shampoo for dogs.
"Do not use in shower." On a hair dryer.
"Warning: May contain small parts." On afrisbee.
"Not suitable for children aged 36 months or less." On a birthday card for a 1 year old.
"For use by trained personnel only."On a can of air freshener.
"Fragile. Do not drop." Posted on a Boeing 757.
"Caution: Remove infant before folding for storage." On a portable stroller.
"May be harmful if swallowed."On a shipment of hammers.
Are we all related Wile E. Coyote? Are we all dumber than a bowl of pudding? Apparently the Warning Label people think so.
Let's face it, life can be dangerous. Sometimes it can be like nothing more than an ongoing obstacle course.Or a minefield.You never know when something's going to blow up in your face or what the next challenge is going to be. Maybe that's why the reality TV show Survivor is so popular.
This passage from Ephesians could be the warning label for the Christian life. Not a funny one but a serious one.
4. The Iniquity of us All
Illustration
James Packer
Why did the Father will the death of his only beloved Son, and in so painful and shameful a form? Because the Father had "laid on him the iniquity of us all" (Isa. 53:6). Jesus' death was vicarious (undergone in our place) and atoning (securing remission of sins for us and reconciliation to God). It was a sacrificial death, fulfilling the principle of atonement taught in connection with the Old Testament sacrifices: "without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins" (Heb. 9:22; Lev. 17:11).
As the "last Adam," the second man in history to act on mankind's behalf, Jesus died a representative death. As a sacrificial victim who put away our sins by undergoing the death penalty that was our due, Jesus died as our substitute. By removing God's wrath against us for sin, his death was an act of propitiation (Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2,; 4:10 "expiation," signifying that which puts away sin, is only half the meaning). By saving us from slavery to ungodliness and divine retribution for sin, Jesus' death was an act of redemption (Gal. 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:18-19). By mediating and making peace between us and God, it was an act of reconciliation (Rom. 5:10-11). It opened the door to our justification (pardon and acceptance) and our adoption (becoming God's sons and heirs Rom. 5:1,9; Gal. 4:4-5).
This happy relationship with our Maker, based on and sealed by blood atonement, is the "New Covenant" of which Jesus spoke in the Upper Room (1 Cor. 11:25; Matt. 26:28).
5. REMEMBER YOUR BAPTISM
Illustration
John H. Krahn
On January 26, 1905, in Pretoria, South Africa, Captain M. F. Wells found a diamond weighing one and one-quarter pounds. Two years later, the diamond was purchased and presented to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. In 1908, a diamond cutter from Amsterdam cut from that diamond the Star of Africa, the largest cut diamond in the world, containing seventy-four facets with a weight of 530 carats. Today, the diamond is still set in the British Royal Scepter. Can you imagine the value of such a jewel?
Then there is the Hope Diamond: the largest blue diamond in the world. It weighs in at 44.4 carats. Found in India during the seventeenth century, it has been displayed, since 1958, at the Smithsonian Institute in Washington, D.C. At that time it was worth between $700,000 and $1,500,000.
But diamonds are not the most precious of gems. Since 1955 rubies have been the world’s most precious gem, attaining a price of up to $30,000 per carat. Can you imagine what the Burmese Ruby, weighing 1,184 carats, would be worth? To have in our possession one of these jewels would be to have one of the most beautiful and most valued jewels in the world. Imagine how it would feel wearing the Hope Diamond set into a ring. Well, most of us already possess a jewel of even greater value.
In his Large Catechism, Martin Luther makes this concluding statement about Holy Baptism: "No greater jewel can adorn our body or soul than Baptism: For through it, perfect holiness and salvation become accessible to us, which are otherwise beyond the reach of man’s life and energy." I am sure if any of us owned one of the great gems of the world, we would not easily forget about it. Rather we would feel good about it, share its beauty by wearing it, be careful to protect it, and treasure it. Yet our beautiful adornment of Baptism is often forgotten. Weeks go by without us even considering our jewel of Baptism.
Saint Paul reminds us in Romans that through Baptism we were buried with Christ in his death. Baptism joins us to Christ and through it we receive the forgiveness that his death affords. Paul says, "We were buried therefore with him by Baptism into death,... so that as Christ has been raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, we too might walk in newness of life."
All of us from time to time have felt that we needed a change; some have even dreamed of a new life, a new beginning. New life, our new beginning, not only happens on the day we are baptized but can extend to every day. As we daily remember our Baptism, we welcome the benefits of Baptism. Benefits that come from a powerful God who offers help and peace to children who call upon his name. Benefits of renewed joy snatched from sorrow, renewed strength formed out of weakness and the ability to forgive someone you would naturally want to hate.
Because we believe and are baptized, we also remember that our eternal future is certain - however uncertain our earthly life might be. We are family. And when we die, we know that God the Father has already made provisions for a great reunion party in heaven. A new life in heaven is ours as we join the forever family of God.
6. Face to Face With Jesus
Illustration
Source Unknown
The hymn writer Fanny Crosby gave us more than 6,000 gospel songs. Although blinded by an illness at the age of 6 weeks, she never became bitter. One time a preacher sympathetically remarked, "I think it is a great pity that the Master did not give you sight when He showered so many other gifts upon you." She replied quickly, "Do you know that if at birth I had been able to make one petition, it would have been that I should be born blind?" "Why?" asked the surprised clergyman. "Because when I get to heaven, the first face that shall ever gladden my sight will be that of my Savior!" One of Miss Crosby's hymns was so personal that for years she kept it to herself.
Kenneth Osbeck, author of several books on hymnology, says its revelation to the public came about this way: "One day at the Bible conference in Northfield, Massachusetts, Miss Crosby was asked by D.L. Moody to give a personal testimony. At first she hesitated, then quietly rose and said, 'There is one hymn I have written which has never been published. I call it my soul's poem. Sometimes when I am troubled, I repeat it to myself, for it brings comfort to my heart.' She then recited while many wept, 'Someday the silver cord will break, and I no more as now shall sing; but oh, the joy when I shall wake within the palace of the King! And I shall see Him face to face, and tell the story saved by grace!'"
At the age of 95 Fanny Crosby passed into glory and saw the face of Jesus.
7. Value of the Bible
Illustration
Staff
An unknown writer said: This Book is the mind of God, the state of man, the way of salvation, the doom of sinners, and the happiness of believers. Its doctrines are holy, its precepts are binding; its histories are true, and its decisions are immutable. Read it to be wise, believe it to be safe, practice it to be holy. It contains light to direct you, food to support you, and comfort to cheer you. It is the traveler's map, the pilgrim's staff, the pilot's compass, the soldier's sword, and the Christian's character.
Here paradise is restored, heaven opened, and the gates of hell disclosed. Christ is its grand subject, our good its design, and the glory of God its end. It should fill the memory, rule the heart, and guide the feet. Read it slowly, frequently, prayerfully. It is a mine of wealth, a paradise of glory, and a river of pleasure. Follow its precepts and it will lead you to Calvary, to the empty tomb, to a resurrected life in Christ; yes, to glory itself, for eternity.
8. The Regenerating Work of the Spirit
Illustration
Phil Newton
John Tennant, a contemporary of Jonathan Edwards, and who died faithfully preaching the gospel when he was twenty-five, identified eleven evidences of the regenerating work of the Spirit. I will adapt these for our attention [edits in brackets].
The understanding is renewed…a light from on high shines into it, whereby its natural darkness is in some measure dissipated, so that it [has] new apprehension of things.
He has a new assent, his understanding being enlightened to perceive the precious truths of Christ; he assents to them with a kind of [full certainty], in a lively, sensible manner.
His judgment is changed.
His estimate of things is changed.
His purposes are changed, he has vastly different designs from those he was [accustomed] to entertain and indulge before his new birth…In short, his purposes were for sin and self, but now they are for God and his soul, now he strives as much daily to get his heart and affections deadened to the world, as he did before to secure and advance his interest in it.
His reasonings are changed.
The will is changed. It has got a new bias and centre of its actings…He aims at God's glory in all his actions universally, and singly, the inclinations of his will bend toward God freely from an inward and powerful principle of life…Furthermore, his will has new enjoyments.
The affections of the soul are changed.
The conscience is changed…now, when the soul feels the regenerating influences of the Holy Spirit, what a tender sense fills the renewed conscience! For what small things it will smite, rebuke and check the sinner! How strongly will it bind to duty, and bar against sin!
The memory; now is more apt to embrace and retain divine things than formerly.
Their conversation is changed. They were [accustomed] to be like moles groveling in the earth, now their mind and conversation are in heaven [Tennant, 275-285].
9. Another Year
Illustration
Frances R. Havergal
Another year is dawning,
Dear Father let it be,
In working or in waiting,
Another year with thee.
Another year of progress,
Another year of praise,
Another year of proving
Thy presence all the days.
Another year of mercies,
Of faithfulness and grace,
Another year of gladness,
The glory of thy face.
Another year of leaning
Upon thy loving breast,
Another year of trusting,
Of quiet, happy rest.
Another year of service,
Of witness for thy love,
Another year of training
For holier work above.
Another year is dawning,
Dear Father, let it be,
On earth, or else in heaven,
Another year for thee.
10. The Humanist's Prayer
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Lyman Abbot once paraphrased the Lord's Prayer to reflect the philosophy of those without God. We might call it the Humanist's Prayer:
Our brethren who art on earth,
hallowed be our name.
Our kingdom come,
our will be done on earth,
for there is no heaven.
must get this day our daily bread;
we neither forgive nor are forgiven.
We fear not temptation,
for we deliver ourselves from evil.
For ours is the kingdom and the power,
and there is no glory and no forever.
11. EASTER POWER
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Easter is a magnificent day! It is the most significant day of the entire year. It is a day of celebration ... the finest clothes, lilies trumpeting their beautiful fragrance, Christian fellowship, joyful greetings ... nothing can be too good. On Easter we celebrate new hope and the possibility of living life to its fullest. God is saying to us that his blessings and love are ours. Good and even great days are now possible for us with the best of days still to come in heaven.
What problems lurk in your life? Are you afraid of death? Are you afraid of life? Easter proclaims that you can be victorious over any problem that you might face. Victory can be yours by believing in Easter and by appropriating Easter into your daily life.
But what is Easter? Easter is power. The power of God released which raised a dead Son after he had been in the grave for three days. Many gravestones carry the inscription, "Here lies ...," but on Christ’s tomb are the words, "He is not here." In Joseph’s garden is history’s only empty grave. I believe Christ rose from the dead, and I believe the resurrection power of God is still being unleashed today.
God wants to resurrect us from whatever defeat is in our lives and then give us a victorious death. He wants to resurrect us from a life of loneliness and gloom into one of meaning and joy. He wants to resurrect us from a life deadened by fear to a life enlivened by confidence. He especially wants to resurrect us from our own personal death into his very own personal paradise.
So roll back the stone of any unbelief in your hearts, behold the glory of the empty tomb, and thrill to the power that can now be yours. Place your weak and trembling hand into his and say with Thomas, "My Lord and my God." Belief in Jesus and his resurrection is the key that delivers us from fear and sorrow. Jesus is the key to personal happiness, to peace, and to life everlasting. You can know this peace, you can know this joy, you can have this power, if today you will commit yourself to him, and then say with your whole heart, "I know that my Redeemer lives!"
12. Net Faith
Illustration
Richard Baxter
During the building of the Golden Gate Bridge over San Francisco Bay, construction fell badly behind schedule because several workers had accidentally fallen from the scaffolding to their deaths. Engineers and administrators could find no solution to the costly delays. Finally, someone suggested a gigantic net be hung under the bridge to catch any who fell. Finally in spite of the enormous cost, the engineers opted for the net. After it was installed, progress was hardly interrupted. A worker or two fell into the net but were saved.
Ultimately, all the time lost to fear was regained by replacing fear with faith in the net. As we paid nothing for God's eternal love and nothing for the Son of His love, and nothing for His Spirit and our grace and faith, and nothing for our eternal rest...What an astonishing thought it will be to think of the unmeasurable difference between our deservings and our receivings. O, how free was all this love, and how free is this enjoyed glory...So then let "Deserved" be written on the floor of hell but on the door of heaven and life.
13. Praise The Lord!
Illustration
John E. Sumwalt
The Board of Bethlehem Community Church gathered for its monthly meeting with solemn resolve. They were the largest, most prestigious congregation in their region, and with that honor came some serious responsibility. Every other year they hosted the Bishop's Winter Renewal Retreat for forty to fifty area pastors. Bethlehem Church's beautiful facility provided meeting rooms and meals for the specially invited clergy and guest speakers. The details were always impeccably managed. Each retreat closed with the Bishop preaching the Sunday morning sermon for the guests and congregation. Participants left feeling pampered and refreshed.
But this year the Board faced a potentially embarrassing dilemma. In the two years since the last retreat, Mae Ella Grant had joined the church.
Now, Bethlehem Community Church was known for its classic, high-church liturgy. The pastor's preaching style tended to attract the intellectual, professional members of the community. The organist and music director had both taught music at a local private college for years. They had attracted many professional singers and musicians to the sixty-voice choir and chamber orchestra. Mae Ella Grant's first visit to the church had been at Easter the previous year. After the choir's beautiful presentation of Handel's "Hallelujah Chorus," she had spontaneously cried out, "Praise the Lord!" Imagine the congregation's shock!
Most everyone had politely ignored that first, indelicate outburst. But the Grant family returned to worship. During each service she attended, Mae Ella managed to lose control of at least one "Amen!" or "Halleluia!" or "Praise the Lord!" The difficulty was that she was a perfectly charming person in every other way. When her family joined the church, she took an immediate role in Sunday School, the Social Concerns Committee and the Women's Service Society. She volunteered tirelessly to serve at dinners, help put out mailings, and work at the mealsite for the homeless. Everyone came to know and like her. Many tried, directly or indirectly, in gentle and not-so-gentle ways, to tell her how disturbing her outbursts were to the rest of the congregation. Mae Ella would blush and shake her red curls and apologize. But, with a sparkle in her eyes, she would say that, sometimes, there was no controlling the Holy Spirit!
Well, even the most conservative worshipers became accustomed to the outbursts after a year and a half. They could tolerate some spontaneity, especially when they knew Mae Ella was trying to conform. But what would the Bishop and visiting pastors think? The board was solemn, indeed, as they made their preparations.
Another Bishop's Winter Retreat was carried out as impeccably as always after the beginning of the New Year. With tastefully-chosen Christmas decorations still in place, awaiting the arrival of the magi, forty-five pastors were enveloped in the hospitality of Bethlehem Church. Mae Ella Grant was one of the hardest working volunteers that entire weekend. And on Sunday morning she and her husband, a psychology professor at the University, and their three curly-haired children were in their usual places to hear the Bishop speak. Mae Ella, having been cautioned by her many friends to control herself, was on her best behavior.
The choir's moving rendition of "Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming" nearly did her in. Mae Ella sat on her hands and bit her lip when they were finished. Then one of the guest speakers from the retreat rose to read the Psalm, and his words and the strength of his southern drawl were a balm on Mae Ella's soul. He read:
Praise the Lord! Praise the Lord from the heavens; praise him in the heights! Praise him, all his angels; praise him, all his host! Praise him, sun and moon; praise him, all you shining stars! ... Kings of the earth and all peoples, princes and all rulers of the earth! Young men and women alike, old and young together! Let them praise the name of the Lord, for his name alone is exalted; his glory is above earth and heaven ... Praise the Lord! (verses 1-3, 11-13, 14b)
The echo of his last words had not finished ringing through the carved oak rafters before Mae Ella's hands clapped before her and she shouted in return, "Oh, praise the Lord!"
Just as abruptly as it began, her applause stopped as Mae Ella's hands clapped over her mouth. She sank back in the pew in horror of what she had done. But her husband tapped her shoulder and pointed to the Bishop, who now stood in the pulpit beaming a warm smile in her direction.
"Thank you so much for that testimony to the glory of God," the Bishop said directly to Mae Ella. And as the crimson color began to recede slowly from her face, she listened in awe. The Bishop proceeded to preach an inspiring sermon on the importance of spontaneous praise in worship. In it he endorsed the expression of such praise as a regular part of the worship experience. When he came to the conclusion, the Bishop smiled impishly in Mae Ella's direction and said, "Will you all say 'Amen'?" Mae Ella's lilting voice led the staid congregation in a surprisingly strong Amen!
14. Dearest Jesus, Holy Child
Illustration
Martin Luther
Ah, dearest Jesus, holy Child,
Make thee a bed, soft, undefiled,
Within my heart, that it may be
A quiet chamber kept for Thee.
My heart for very joy doth leap,
My lips no more can silence keep,
I too must sing, with joyful tongue,
That sweetest ancient cradle song,
Glory to God in highest heaven,
Who unto man His Son hath given
While angels sing with pious mirth.
A glad new year to all the earth.
15. Walking in Faith
Illustration
Mark Trotter
"Take nothing with you." Jesus is saying, be Knights of Faith. Do this journey right. Do it the way it is supposed to be done. Journey with grace. Make your journey without any visible means of support. Make your journey with the spiritual equivalent of "no hands," so that others, seeing your faith, seeing the way that you make your journey, will be astonished. How does she do that? And give glory to your father in heaven.
And I have seen that with my own mother. I have stood there and asked, how does she do it? She knows what's going to happen. The doctors have told her. She knows that it is not far away. But look at her. She laughs; she makes jokes about the way her wig looks. Then she asks about me. She asks about my family, the children, where we are going to spend our summer.
Then she cries. Because you know, it's not the right time. Things are not the way they should be. There are still things that she wants to do. There are joys that mothers know that she will never experience. There are celebrations that are coming, and she wants to participate in them. But it's not going to happen. So she weeps. Then she says, "But I'm going to keep on going anyway. I'm going to go right up to the end. And I'm not afraid."
I stand there, and I watch her ride through the valley of the shadow of death and fear no evil, sitting there, straight and tall, perfect balance in her life, no hands. She is at that point in her journey when she is traveling on faith alone. She is taking nothing with her now, but faith. I stand there in awe, and I give thanks.
16. But I Wasn't Running
Illustration
Our Daily Bread
When Mike Peters won the Pulitzer Prize for political cartoons (1981), he wasn't expecting the honor. He described his response by saying, "It is like you are asleep and it is 2 in the morning and you are hugging your pillow and you are in your funny pajamas and somebody bursts through the door and they come over and start shaking you and they say, 'Wake up, wake up!' And you say, 'What is it?' And they say, 'You have just won the Boston Marathon!' And you say, 'But I'm not running in the Boston Marathon.' And they say, 'Doesn't make any difference, you won.'"
We can find at least one element that is common to both Mike Peters' analogy and the account in Mark 9. Jesus taught that heaven too will hold some surprises. Honor and glory will be granted for behavior that was so natural, so undistinguished, and so noncompetitive.
Take, for instance, the simple illustration of receiving a child in Jesus' name. He was talking about having a humble servant attitude, being willing to reach out and help the lowliest of people so that we might show them the love of Christ. Such simple acts will be greatly rewarded.
Yes, many of God's children will be surprised to find that their faithful service has brought them top honors.
17. Spiritual Eloquence in Communication
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Eloquence isn't necessarily flowery language so much as heartfelt expression. Consider this prayer of a country preacher in Red Rock, Mississippi:
"O Lord, give Thy servant this mornin' the eyes of the eagle and the wisdom of the owl; connect his soul with the gospel telephone in the central skies; 'luminate his brow with the Sun of Heaven; possess his mind with love for the people; turpentine his imagination; grease his lips with 'possum oil; loosen his tongue with the sledge hammer of Thy power; 'lectrify his brain with the lightnin' of the word; put 'petual motion on his arms, fill him plum full of the dynamite of Thy glory; 'noint him all over with the kerosene oil of Thy salvation and set him on the fire. Amen!"
18. JC = PJP!
Illustration
John H. Krahn
JC = PJP is the formula for a happy and successful life. The formula begins with a few shepherds and a suddenly-appearing angel who tells them of a wonderful event happening in Bethlehem. In this nondescript place, the Savior, Jesus Christ, is being born. The angel is now joined by the armies of heaven praising God and saying, "Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace, good will toward men."
Peace came to earth as the Son of God struggled out of a human womb. God became man. The Prince of Peace was born. That peace can now become ours. For peace is to know Christ is mine and all is well.
Yes JC = P but it also equals J! With Jesus Christ and his peace also comes joy. Christianity is a religion of joy and enthusiasm. There is nothing dull about it! If you cannot stand excitement, it has little to offer you. Long faces and sad eyes are out of place. So if you see someone who does not have a smile, give him one of yours.
Jesus Christ equals Peace! Joy! and also Power! The Bible tells us that we now have the power for doing his will as we wait for the return of our Lord Jesus Christ. Because of this power, Christianity is the religion of great possibilities. Saint Luke writes, "The things which are impossible with men are possible with God." When we know Jesus, even the impossible can become a possibility for our lives.
A successful and a happy life is one in which the Holy Spirit works the formula JC = PJP. For in Jesus Christ we can have the peace of God that the angels sang about. In Jesus Christ we can have great joy enabling us to sing all the way through life. In Jesus Christ we can have the power of God that even makes the impossible, possible.
19. Let the Lower Lights Be Burning
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Jesus stressed the positive effect we can have on others when he said, “Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 5:16, rsv) But if sin dims our testimony so that our “light” is no longer visible, some of those we might have influenced for Christ may drift on in spiritual darkness.
On a dark and stormy night, with waves piling up like mountains on Lake Erie, a boat rocked and plunged near the Cleveland harbor. “Are we on course?” asked the captain, seeing only one beacon from the lighthouse. “Quite sure, sir,” replied the officer at the helm. “Where are the lower lights?” “Gone out, sir.” “Can we make the harbor?” “We must, or perish!” came the reply. With a steady hand and a stalwart heart, the officer headed the ship toward land.
But, in the darkness, he missed the channel and the vessel was dashed to pieces on the rocks. Many lives were lost in a watery grave. This incident moved Philip P. Bliss to write the familiar hymn, “Let the Lower Lights Be Burning.”
20. Sermon Opener - What Will He Find?
Illustration
Theodore F. Schneider
Every pastor has been touched and troubled when there have been those in the congregation who suddenly have faced unemployment. Like an ambush from two sides, unemployment attacks us with the fear of financial insecurity on the one side and the loss of self-esteem on the other. Job searching can deepen both. In just such a moment I encountered Brian. He is a competent and creative person whose skills and personality cannot be long overlooked. "It will work out, Brian," I said. "God does provide." "I hope so!" he replied. From the inflection of his voice, I knew he did not "expect" so.
One is reminded of Lucy's encouragement to Charlie Brown in one of the Peanuts cartoons. "Look at it this way, Charlie Brown," she consoles. "These are your bitter days. These are the days of your hardship and struggle ..." The next frame goes on: "... but if you just hold your head up high and keep on fighting, you'll triumph!" "Gee, do you really think so, Lucy?" Charlie asks. As she walks away Lucy says: "Frankly, no!"
Hope is like that. We speak of it more often than we believe in it. Hope is not a strong word for us. It has more to do with "wishing" than "expecting." It has the sound of resignation, an inability to bring about, influence, or even believe that a desired event or goal might ever come to be. "Well, I hope so" has in its whimsical sound the same negation of the words that we hear in the sarcastic "Sure it will!" or "Well, I guess!" Hope, as we understand it, is not a word of excitement and expectation. It speaks of resignation and helplessness. "Well, I hope so ..."
How then can we understand the New Testament's strong use of the word? Repeatedly Paul writes about hope. To the Thessalonians he writes of the armor of God, including the "hope of salvation" as a helmet. To the Colossians he writes of the "hope laid up in heaven," and of the "hope of glory." Peter writes in his first letter that "we have been born anew to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, and to an inheritance which is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, held in heaven for you."
Given our understanding of the word, shivers run up our spines as we think about it. "Is that all we have?" we want to shout. "Is 'hope' all we have after all? Just ... hope?"
1. A Hope That Does Not Disappoint Us
2. A Hope Deferred
3. A Parable Of Reassurance
21. Athanasian Creed
Illustration
Brett Blair
Athanasian Creed:Athanasius, known as Athanasius of Alexandria, was the 20th bishop of Alexandria. His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years, of which over 17 encompassed five exiles. He istraditionally thought to be the author of the thisCreed named after him.It was createdto guardNicene Christianity from the heresy of Arianism. It is widely accepted as orthodox and some abbreviated versions of it are still in usetoday. And yes, the intro and outro are actually part of the original text.
Whoever desires to be saved should above all hold to the catholic faith.
Anyone who does not keep it whole and unbroken will doubtless perish eternally.
Now this is the catholic faith:
That we worship one God in trinity and the trinity in unity,
neither blending their persons
nor dividing their essence.
For the person of the Father is a distinct person,
the person of the Son is another,
and that of the Holy Spirit still another.
But the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is one,
their glory equal, their majesty coeternal.
What quality the Father has, the Son has, and the Holy Spirit has.
The Father is uncreated,
the Son is uncreated,
the Holy Spirit is uncreated.
The Father is immeasurable,
the Son is immeasurable,
the Holy Spirit is immeasurable.
The Father is eternal,
the Son is eternal,
the Holy Spirit is eternal.
And yet there are not three eternal beings;
there is but one eternal being.
So too there are not three uncreated or immeasurable beings;
there is but one uncreated and immeasurable being.
Similarly, the Father is almighty,
the Son is almighty,
the Holy Spirit is almighty.
Yet there are not three almighty beings;
there is but one almighty being.
Thus the Father is God,
the Son is God,
the Holy Spirit is God.
Yet there are not three gods;
there is but one God.
Thus the Father is Lord,
the Son is Lord,
the Holy Spirit is Lord.
Yet there are not three lords;
there is but one Lord.
Just as Christian truth compels us
to confess each person individually
as both God and Lord,
so catholic religion forbids us
to say that there are three gods or lords.
The Father was neither made nor created nor begotten from anyone.
The Son was neither made nor created;
he was begotten from the Father alone.
The Holy Spirit was neither made nor created nor begotten;
he proceeds from the Father and the Son.
Accordingly there is one Father, not three fathers;
there is one Son, not three sons;
there is one Holy Spirit, not three holy spirits.
Nothing in this trinity is before or after,
nothing is greater or smaller;
in their entirety the three persons
are coeternal and coequal with each other.
So in everything, as was said earlier,
we must worship their trinity in their unity
and their unity in their trinity.
Anyone then who desires to be saved
should think thus about the trinity.
But it is necessary for eternal salvation
that one also believe in the incarnation
of our Lord Jesus Christ faithfully.
Now this is the true faith:
That we believe and confess
that our Lord Jesus Christ, God's Son,
is both God and human, equally.
He is God from the essence of the Father,
begotten before time;
and he is human from the essence of his mother,
born in time;
completely God, completely human,
with a rational soul and human flesh;
equal to the Father as regards divinity,
less than the Father as regards humanity.
Although he is God and human,
yet Christ is not two, but one.
He is one, however,
not by his divinity being turned into flesh,
but by God's taking humanity to himself.
He is one,
certainly not by the blending of his essence,
but by the unity of his person.
For just as one human is both rational soul and flesh,
so too the one Christ is both God and human.
He suffered for our salvation;
he descended to hell;
he arose from the dead;
he ascended to heaven;
he is seated at the Father's right hand;
from there he will come to judge the living and the dead.
At his coming all people will arise bodily
and give an accounting of their own deeds.
Those who have done good will enter eternal life,
and those who have done evil will enter eternal fire.
This is the catholic faith:
one cannot be saved without believing it firmly and faithfully.
This ecumenical creed(428 A.D.) is probably unknown to most Christians because it is seldom, if ever, used in worship services. It is probably not used because of its length. The Nicene Creed has eighteen printed lines, whereas the Athanasian has 69. It is difficult for congregations to use because of the creed's intricate and complex terms.
Though the creed carries the name of Athanasius, he did not write it. It was the product of the church of his time. The creed was named after him to honor him for his brave and forceful defense of the Trinity. Athanasius (289-373) was a bishop in Alexandria, Egypt.
The creed deals primarily with the Trinity and Jesus as the Son of God. At this time, the heresy of Arius was prominent. He taught that Jesus was not fully human or divine and that the Holy Spirit was not God but only a divine influence. The Athanasian Creed denounced these false teachings and upheld the doctrine of the Trinity. Luther's high regard for this creed was expressed: "I doubt, since the days of the Apostles, anything more important and more glorious has ever been written in the church of the New Testament."
22. Christ, Incarnation of
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The story is told of Shah Abbis, a Persian monarch who loved his people very much. To know and understand them better, he would mingle with his subjects in various disguises. One day he went as a poor man to the public baths and in a tiny cellar sat beside the fireman who tended the furnace. When it was mealtime the monarch shared his coarse food and talked to his lonely subject as a friend. Again and again he visited and the man grew to love him. One day the Shah told him he was the monarch, expecting the man to ask some gift from him. But the fireman sat gazing at his ruler with love and wonder and at last spoke, “You left your palace and your glory to sit with me in this dark place, to eat of my coarse food, to care whether my heart is glad or sorry. On others you may bestow rich presents, but to me you have given yourself, and it only remains for me to pray that you never withdraw the gift of your friendship.”
This beautiful story reminds us that Christ, whose birth we celebrate at Christmas, left the glories of heaven in order to share himself with us. That gift of his love and friendship will never be withdrawn from us. He chose to be your friend and mine forever.
23. The Seven Stars
Illustration
Staff
There is an intriguing bit of Scripture in The Revelation, chapter 1, verses 16 and 17. The author, a lonely prisoner on the barren cliffs of Patmos, writes that he saw the glorified Christ, the one "who lives and was dead," who is "alive forevermore." "He had in his right hand seven stars," John writes, and, upon seeing him, "I fell down at his feet as one dead." Then, the very next word is this: "He laid his right hand on me."
His right hand - the hand with the seven stars in it! This hand he laid upon the shoulder of a troubled, trembling man. What of those stars? Well, he must have laid them aside somewhere. It must be an extremely important activity to hold seven stars in one's hand. But to hold these is not nearly so important to the Lord Christ as it is to touch with blessing a solitary human person who is bowed before him in adoration and awe.
Here is the kind of Lord we worship - one who can put aside the care of stars in order to care for one person who comes in reverence to him. Know this, dear friend: whatever else in the whole universe may be of concern to our Lord just now, nothing is more important to him than you are. As you bow before him, know that his hand of pardon and peace is resting with blessing upon your shoulder.
24. Someone with Skin On
Illustration
Staff
A little boy who cried out in the night. "Daddy, I'm scared!" Half awake Daddy said, "Don't be afraid, Daddy's right across the hall." There was a brief pause and the little boy called out, "I'm still scared." So Daddy pulled out the big guns, "You don't have to be afraid God is with you. God loves you." The pause was longer but the little boy called out again, "I don't care about God, Daddy; I want someone with skin on!"
God knew we needed that assurance of someone with skin on. So God wrapped all the glory of heaven into the flesh and blood of Jesus and stepped into this world as the Good Shepherd just to show us how much we are loved. The Good Shepherd isn't satisfied until all of the sheep are safely gathered into the flock. Not even a one percent margin of loss was acceptable. Jesus came to find the lost.
25. And There Was Light
Illustration
Staff
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) was present at the Vienna Music Hall, where his oratorio The Creation was being performed. Weakened by age, the great composer was confined to a wheelchair. As the majestic work moved along, the audience was caught up with tremendous emotion. When the passage "And there was light!" was reached, the chorus and orchestra burst forth in such power that the crowd could no longer restrain its enthusiasm.
The vast assembly rose in spontaneous applause. Haydn struggled to stand and motioned for silence. With his hand pointed toward heaven, he said, "No, no, not from me, but from thence comes all!" Having given the glory and praise to the Creator, he fell back into his chair exhausted.
26. In the Fires of Life
Illustration
Jon L. Joyce
Back in 1917 during the Russian Revolution, a Russian Orthodox priest and eleven of his parishioners were placed in a prison by the Bolsheviks. They were left there to rot. From time to time, as the weeks went by, the guard of the prisoners would tell his superior: "There is someone else in that cell besides those twelve men. There is someone getting to them who helps them and provides them with what they need. I don’t know how this is possible. All I know there has to be someone with them." Finally, the superior of the prison impatiently went to the cell with the guard. They opened the cell door and herded the twelve prisoners out into the corridor. The superior counted them off one by one. He said to the guard: "Now, you see, there are only twelve." But the old priest spoke up: "But you have forgotten to count the thirteenth who has always been with us. You have forgotten to count Jesus Christ."
Again and again, in the fires of life, we have seen people standing unharmed and unafraid, because the Lord is with them. Emily Bronte, the author of Wuthering Heights, lived and wrote in a rectory on a bleak, gray moor in Yorkshire. She spent her days with a half demented father, two sisters who were dying of tuberculosis, and a brother who regularly came home howling drunk from the village tavern. Yet she could write:
No coward’s soul is mine,
No trembler in the world’s storm-troubled sphere,
I see heaven’s glory shine,
Faith shines equal, arming me from fear.
Jesus walks our lonesome road. He knew heartaches and tears. He knew rejection and ostracism. He knew the loneliness that comes from standing alone for a great cause. He knew defeat and fatigue. He understood life as we face it. He knew the answers. He found that he had company on the lonesome road. He found the Father with him. He spoke those comforting words from which every lonely person can take heart: "I am not alone, because the Father is with me." I love that scene in Green Pastures when the children of Israel have gone on ahead into the Promised Land, and they have left Moses behind on Mount Pisgah on the other side of Jordan. What a pitifully lonely figure he is, as he watches them go, and what a terrible lonesomeness descends upon him. Then he hears a movement behind him, and he feels a hand on his shoulder. He asks: "Is you with me, Lord?" The voice that comes back warms his soul: "Cou’se I is, Moses, cou’se I is."
27. Only One Plan
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
There is a legend that recounts the return of Jesus to glory after His time on earth. Even in heaven He bore the marks of His earthly pilgrimage with its cruel cross and shameful death. The angel Gabriel approached Him and said, "Master, you must have suffered terribly for men down there." He replied that he did. Gabriel continued: "And do they know and appreciate how much you loved them and what you did for them?" Jesus replied, "Oh, no! Not yet. Right now only a handful of people in Palestine know." But Gabriel was perplexed. He asked, "Then what have you done to let everyone know about your love for them?" Jesus said, "I've asked Peter, James, John, and a few more friends to tell others about me. Those who are told will tell others, in turn, about me. And my story will be spread to the farthest reaches of the globe. Ultimately, all of mankind will have heard about my life and what I have done."
Gabriel frowned and looked rather skeptical. He well knew what poor scuff men were made of. He said, "Yes, but what if Peter and James and John grow weary? What if the people who come after them forget? What if way down in the twentieth-century people just don't cell others about you?
Haven't you made any other plans?" And Jesus answered, "I haven't made any other plans. I'm counting on them." Twenty centuries later, He still has no other plan. He's counting on you and me. High on God's "To Do" list is the evangelization of the world. His early disciples adopted His priorities and devoted themselves to reaching the world. Christ counted on them, and they delivered. Have we done as well?
28. The Nicene Creed
Illustration
Staff
The Nicene Creed is a statement of belief widely used in Christian liturgy. It is called Nicene because it was originally adopted in the city of Nicaea (present dayİznik, Turkey)by the First Council of Nicaea in 325.
We believe in one God,
the Father almighty,
maker of heaven and earth,
of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ,
the only Son of God,
begotten from the Father before all ages,
God from God,
Light from Light,
true God from true God,
begotten, not made;
of the same essence as the Father.
Through him all things were made.
For us and for our salvation
he came down from heaven;
he became incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary,
and was made human.
He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate;
he suffered and was buried.
The third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures.
He ascended to heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again with glory
to judge the living and the dead.
His kingdom will never end.
And we believe in the Holy Spirit,
the Lord, the giver of life.
He proceeds from the Father and the Son,
and with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified.
He spoke through the prophets.
We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church.
We affirm one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.
We look forward to the resurrection of the dead,
and to life in the world to come. Amen.
The Nicene Creed(325-381 A.D.) provides a fuller explanation of the Christian faith. It is called Nicene because a general council of the church, similar to Vatican II held in the 1960s, met in the city of Nicaea in Asia Minor. The Council was called to deal with the heresy of Arianism, which was a denial of the Trinity. The Nicene Creed goes into more detail than the Apostles' Creed on the Trinity and the person of Jesus.
A final version of the creed was formulated by another Council which met in Constantinople in 381 A.D. The creed is and has been from the start a topic of contention. In 598 a provincial church council meeting in Toledo, Spain, added the "filioque clause" which says that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father "and the Son." This added clause was accepted by the Western but not the Eastern church. It became one of the causes of the schism between East and West in 1064 A.D. Today the clause is still proving to be a stumbling block to closer relations with the Eastern Orthodox church. The Nicene Creed is familiar to most churchgoers in liturgical churches, because it is used in the worship service on festivals and certain seasons such as Advent, Christmas, Lent, and Easter.
29. Examining Ourselves with the Lord's Prayer
Illustration
Staff
- I cannot say “our” if I live only for myself.
- I cannot say “Father” if I do not endeavor each day to act like his child.
- I cannot say “who art in heaven” if I am laying up no treasure there.
- I cannot say “hallowed be thy name” if I am not striving for holiness.
- I cannot say “thy Kingdom come” if I am not doing all in my power to hasten that wonderful event.
- I cannot say “thy will be done” if I am disobedient to his Word.
- I cannot say “on earth as it is in heaven” if I’ll not serve him here and now.
- I cannot say “give us this day our daily bread” if I am dishonest or am seeking things by subterfuge.
- I cannot say “forgive us our debts” if I harbor a grudge against anyone.
- I cannot say “lead us not into temptation” if I deliberately place myself in its path.
- I cannot say “deliver us from evil” if I do not put on the whole armor of God.
- I cannot say “thine is the kingdom” if I do not give the King the loyalty due him from a faithful subject.
- I cannot attribute to him “the power” if I fear what men may do.
- I cannot ascribe to him “the glory” if I’m seeking honor only for myself, and I cannot say “forever” if the horizon of my life is bounded completely by time.
30. When the Mood Shifts
Illustration
Alton F. Wedel
When Jesus came to Galilee, he began his preaching with the message, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." And the expectations of the people soared to heights not known since Solomon. They had been oppressed, depressed, distressed, and had been waiting for the day when from their midst a hero would arise to lay a left hook on the jaw of the hated Roman Empire, restore the glory of the dim and distant yesteryear, and make those good things happen that the prophets had foretold. The land should bloom again, poverty should be exchanged for prosperity, and swords should be beaten into plowshares.
So there were fishermen who dropped their nets and followed him. There were zealots who became excited at the prospect of the kingdom, a tax collector closed his booth and invested his stock in this new opportunity. People brought their sick to him, the pained, the paralytic, and the infirm, for as he preached the gospel of the kingdom, he healed them of their diseases, and cast out demons. His fame spread southward to Jerusalem and north to Syria. The skies were bright with promise.
We can understand the mood. We have heard the promise that prosperity is just around the corner. We have heard the bands strike up the tune, "Happy Days Are Here Again." We have been given the assurance of a great society, a generation of peace, and the great things that should happen because the torch was passed to a generation that places great value on "change." We scan the headlines, watching for the breakthrough that might promise cures for our diseases, aches, and pains, or much-needed reform of the broken healthcare system. We cheer the tax reform that promises more disposable income. As someone once or twice was known to say, "Progress is our most important product," and we are on the move.
But as our expectations soar, disappointment deepens. Visions of the Kingdom evaporate. Ideals dampen to realities. The mood of the Emmaus disciples takes hold again. "We had hoped ..."
31. Thanking Heaven
Illustration
Brett Blair
I like the story told about Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) in his later years. On a special evening at the Vienna Music Hall his oratorio "The Creation" was being performed. As the majestic work moved along, the audience was caught up with tremendous emotion. When the passage "And there was light!" was reached, the chorus and orchestra burst forth in such power that the crowd could no longer restrain its enthusiasm.
The vast assembly rose spontaneous applause in the middle of the piece. Haydn, weakened by age and confined to a wheelchair, struggled to stand and motioned for silence. With his hand pointed toward heaven, he said, "No, no, not from me, but from thence comes all!" Having given the glory and praise to the Creator, he fell back into his chair exhausted.
Perhaps that is the lesson Jesus would have the disciples learn. Haydn directed the crowd's attention away from his talents to God's, away from the beautiful music to a majestic God. Whether a great oratorio or a Temple devoted to God, neither deserves our devotion, only the One from thence comes all!
32. Eagles Who Just Walk Around
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
In Charles Schultz's "Peanuts" cartoon, Snoopy, the hound of heaven, says of Woodstock, the would-be bird of paradise, "Someday Woodstock is going to be a great eagle. He is going to soar thousands of feet above the ground."
Woodstock then takes off into the air. He's upside down and whirling around. "Well, maybe a hundred feet above the ground."
But then Woodstock falls to the ground looking dazed and snoopy says, "Maybe he'll just be one of those eagles who walks around."
Isn't it amazing how quickly we settle for less than is promised and is possible? The psalmist had a thrilling view of our place as human beings in God's creation. "When I look at the heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and stars which though hast ordained, what is man that though aren't mindful of him? Though hast made him a little lower than angels and crowned him with glory and honor."
When we know who we are, we can never be happy as eagles who just walk around.
33. What Must It Be Like?
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
What must it be like to step on shore, and find it—heaven;
To take hold of a hand, and find it—God's;
To breathe a new air, and find it—celestial;
To feel invigorated, and find it—immortality;
To rise from the care, the loneliness, and turmoil of earth
Into one unbroken calm;
To wake up and find it—glory?
34. THE CHRISTMAS MESSAGE: I LOVE YOU
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Little in life can match the beauty of Christmas Eve - the holy night of celebration. Beauty in abundance surrounds us for a few fleeting hours. Each of us treasures these moments, savoring every tradition. Somehow we love our children a little bit more this night. Our wife, how lovely she looks; our hearts feel special love for her, for him. If we had the power to stop time’s endless march - suspend it momentarily - most of us would do it Christmas Eve. For this is the night when peace pervades our hearts, as hands extend to greet friends and arms reach out to embrace family. How wonderfully good we all feel. We love and are loved. We forgive and are forgiven. We give only to receive in return.
Years ago, many years ago, there was a Christmas much unlike our own. The world didn’t stop for the first Christmas - hardly anyone even noticed. The scent of fresh baked bread and chocolate chip cookies were not the smells of the first Christmas. Straw replaced tinsel and garland. Live animals replaced Handgeschnitzed Holzfigurn and Hummels. A virgin laboring at birth, a carpenter lending an unsteady hand. Animals annoyed at intruders. Angels preparing themselves to startle shepherds. God’s wayward creation about to be invaded by the cosmic Christ. Coming into the humblest surroundings to a no-place city called Bethlehem. This was the first Christmas. How strange ... how wonderfully and beautifully strange.
The first Christmas can only be described as unusual and surprising that the God of a million heavens and a million earths should grace a manger in Bethlehem. Swaddling cloths upon the back of a King, of a God - on the back of the one, true, and only God. Where was the finery one might expect? Nowhere, for it was to the poor he came, to those who were troubled, those who were not completely self-sufficient, those who knew they were not good enough to make heaven by themselves. He came for all humankind, not only that first holy night but for every night of every year and into the present - here, right now.
The Lord Jesus Christ is present with us. He speaks to us once again the message of Christmas as he says to each of us, "I love you. I want to be close to you every day of your lives. Please be wise and invite me in. There is no one who is so perfect that he cannot welcome a fuller participation of my indwelling. There are some who have yet to welcome my powerful presence and, unfortunately, we are only occasional guests of one another and may be strangers in eternity. And to you I say, come, do not live another day without my abundant presence." Now may my Father bless and keep each one of you, and may your voices and lives continuously sing the angelic chorus, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men."
35. A Joyful Song
Illustration
A young soldier, while dying very happily, broke out in singing the following stanza:
"Great Jehovah, we adore thee,
God the Father, God the Son, God the Spirit,
joined in glory on the same eternal throne:
Endless praised to Jehovah, three in one."
The chaplain then asked if he had any message to send his friends. "Yes," said he. "Tell my father that I have tried to eat my meals with thanksgiving."
"Tell him that Christ is now all my hope, all my trust, and that he is precious to my soul."
"Tell him that I am not afraid to die all is calm"
"Tell him that I believe Christ will take me to himself, and to my dear sister who is in heaven."
The voice of the dying boy faltered in the intervals between these precious sentences. When the hymn commencing, "Nearer, my God to thee," was read to him, at the end of each stanza he exclaimed, with striking energy, "Oh Lord Jesus, thou are coming nearer to me."
Also at the end of each stanza of the hymn (which was also read to him) commencing, "Just as I am without one plea, But that thy blood was shed for me, And that thou bid'st me come to thee, O Lamb of God, I come," he exclaimed, "I Come! O Lamb of God, I Come!" Speaking again of his friends, he said, "Tell my father that I died happy." His last words were, "Father, I'm coming to thee!" Then the Christian soldier sweetly and calmly "fell asleep in Jesus."
(Anonymous Confederate soldier 1861-65/died in battle in the War Between the States)
36. Eighty Years and One Night
Illustration
Thomas Lindberg
According to a traditional Hebrew story, Abraham was sitting outside his tent one evening when he saw an old man, weary from age and journey, coming toward him. Abraham rushed out, greeted him, and then invited him into his tent. There he washed the old man's feet and gave him food and drink. The old man immediately began eating without saying any prayer or blessing. So Abraham asked him, "Don't you worship God?"
The old traveler replied, "I worship fire only and reverence no other god."
When he heard this, Abraham became incensed, grabbed the old man by the shoulders, and threw him out of his tent into the cold night air.
When the old man had departed, God called to his friend Abraham and asked where the stranger was. Abraham replied, "I forced him out, because he did not worship you."
God answered, "I have suffered him these eighty years although he dishonors me. Could you not endure him one night?"
37. Looking at Footprints
Illustration
Barbara Lundblad
There's a wonderful picture of Jesus' ascension. It is a black and white woodcut print finely etched. In the picture Jesus is rising up as the disciples watch him disappear into the clouds. If you look closely at the picture, not in the clouds, but on the ground, you can see footprints on the earth. The artist has carefully etched Jesus' footprints down on the level where the disciples are standing with their mouths open. Perhaps the artist was simply imagining a homey detail that isn't in the text. Or, perhaps, the artist is pressing us with the old question, "Why do you stand looking up into heaven? Look at these footprints here on the earth." Jesus' muddy footprints are all over the pages of the gospels.
Can you see Jesus' footprints in the wilderness? Each time he was tempted to claim earthly power and glory, he reached up and touched the words of Torah. One does not live by bread alone. Worship the Lord your God and serve only God.
Can you see Jesus walking on the wrong side of the street with the wrong people?
Can you see Jesus walking up to a sycamore tree, then looking up at Zachaeus, the tax collector, perched in the branches? "Come down, Zachaeus," Jesus said, "let's walk over to your house for dinner."
Can you see Jesus walking, then riding, into Jerusalem?
Can you see him stumbling toward Golgotha, loving us to the very end?
38. A Servant Helping a World in Need
Illustration
Charles Hoffacker
In one of German writer Herman Hesse's books, Journey to the East, the central figure is man named Leo. Leo accompanies a party of travelers as their servant doing menial chores, but he also sustains them with his spirit and his song. He is a person of extraordinary presence. All goes well for the travelers until Leo disappears. Then the group falls into disarray; they abandon their journey. Without Leo they cannot make it.
The story's narrator, who is one of the travelers, wanders for years until he is taken into the order that had sponsored the journey. There he is surprised to discover that Leo, whom he had known as a servant, was in fact the head of the order, its guiding spirit, a great leader.
Christianity tells a similar story. Its central figure appears first as a poor child, then a man without worldly power. He moves among the poor, the marginalized, and the sick. He heals, teaches, encourages, and points to the kingdom of heaven. He is a person of extraordinary presence, a servant helping a world in need.
Throughout this story, the leadership of this remarkable figure becomes increasingly apparent. He sets food before the hungry, washes his followers' feet, accepts death on a cross, and is raised up in power and glory. He is manifest as both servant and leader to all who dare recognize him.
39. Keep That Light in Your Eyes
Illustration
David Martin
As Bunyan's Pilgrim felt the forward pull of his journey, the question was put to him by an Evangelist, 'Do you see yonder wicket gate?' He answered, 'No.' Just No. He knew the power of the negative. But then the Evangelist said to him, 'Do you see yonder shining light?' He said, 'I think I do.' Then said the Evangelist, 'Keep that light in your eye, and go directly thereto, so shalt thou then see the Gate ...' That is the message of Easter.
Keep that light in your eye,
and go directly thereto,
So shalt thou then see the Gate.
"Bring us, O Lord God, at our last awakening into the house and gate of heaven, to enter in that gate and dwell in that house ... in the habitation of thy glory and dominion, world without end, Amen."
40. Lordship of Christ
Illustration
Charles Hodge
The Greek word for lord is indeed used in scripture in the sense of master, and as a mere honorary title as in the English Sir. But, on the other hand, it is the translation of Adonai, supreme Lord, an incommunicable name of God, and the substitute for Jehovah, a name the Jews would not pronounce. It is in this sense that Christ is 'the Lord, the Lord of Lords, the Lord God'; Lord in that sense in which God alone can be Lord having a dominion of which divine perfection is the only adequate or possible foundation. This is the reason why no one can call him Lord, but by the Holy Ghost. It is a confession which implies the apprehension of the glory of God as it shines in Him. It is an acknowledgement that He is God manifested in the flesh. Blessed are all who make this acknowledgement with sincerity; for flesh and blood cannot reveal the truth therein confessed, but only the Father who is in heaven.
41. Affecting the Curve
Illustration
Michael P. Green
You are driving down the highway when you encounter a sign that reads, “Dangerous Curve Ahead.” Immediately you are confronted with making a choice. One, you can observe the warning and slow down. Two, you can ignore the warning and maintain your rate of speed. Or, three, you can defy the warning and speed up. Whatever response you exercise, you will not change the truth of the sign. The curve remains dangerous, regardless of whether you acknowledge the fact or not.
42. Personal Understanding of Jesus' Identity
Illustration
Brett Blair
Who do you say that I am? I would suggest to you this morning that that is the most urgent, the most relevant, the most theological question that confronts us today. Wherever we turn in life we are faced with the implications of this question.
Throughout the ages various individuals have attempted to answer that question posed by Jesus. Ernest Renan, a French writer, answered it by saying that Jesus was a sentimental idealist. Bruce Barton, an American businessman, said that who Jesus was the greatest salesman who ever lived. William Hirsch, a Jewish writer, responded that Jesus conformed to the clinical picture of paranoia. A musical drama was performed some years ago that answered this question by saying that Jesus was a Superstar. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, the German theologian, referred to Jesus as the "man for others."
The Gospel writers also attempted in their own fashion to answer this most fundamental question. They bestowed upon him numerous titles and claims: Son of God, Son of man, Divine physician, king, prophet, bridegroom, light of the world, the door, the vine, high priest, the firstborn of creation, the bright and morning star, and Alpha and Omega.
All of these were attempts to answer this question posed by Jesus. But these are attempts made by others. Jesus is more concerned with what your answer is than what there answer is. Martin Luther, another German theologian, wrote: "I care not whether he be Christ, but that he be Christ for you." Peter responded: Thou art the Christ the Son of the living God. Is he Christ for you?
43. With a Repentant Heart
Illustration
Charles W. Colson,
Believers dare not come to the Lord's Table except with a repentant heart. "Whoever eats this bread or drinks this cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner," as Paul puts it, "drinks judgment to himself." That should be a sobering warning, especially when the apostle adds that because of this offense many have fallen ill or died. Any pastor who takes the Word of God seriously should never administer Communion without adequately warning partakers. Those who are unrepentant should flee the table rather than trivialize the sacred.
And God does not view this sacred act lightly. Pat Novak, pastor in a nonsacramental denomination, discovered this when he was serving as a hospital chaplain intern just outside of Boston several years ago. Pat was making his rounds one summer morning when he was called to visit a patient admitted with an undiagnosed ailment. John, a man in his sixties, had not responded to any treatment; medical tests showed nothing; psychological tests were inconclusive. Yet he was wasting away; he had not even been able to swallow for two weeks. The nurses tried everything. Finally they called the chaplain's office.
When Pat walked into the room, John was sitting limply in his bed, strung with IV tubes, staring listlessly at the wall. He was a tall, grandfatherly man, balding a little, but his sallow skin hung loosely on his face, neck, and arms where the weight had dropped from his frame. His eyes were hollow.
Pat was terrified; he had no idea what to do. But John seemed to brighten a bit as soon as he saw Pat's chaplain badge and invited him to sit down. As they talked, Pat sensed that God was urging him to do something specific: He knew he was to ask John if he wanted to take Communion. Chaplain interns were not encouraged to ask this type of thing in this public hospital, but Pat did.
At that John broke down. "I can't!" he cried. "I've sinned and can't be forgiven."
Pat paused a moment, knowing he was about to break policy again. Then he told John about 1 Corinthians 11 and Paul's admonition that whoever takes Communion in an unworthy manner eats and drinks judgment to himself. And he asked John if he wanted to confess his sin. John nodded gratefully. To this day Pat can't remember the particular sin John confessed, nor would he say if he did, but he recalls that it did not strike him as particularly egregious. Yet it had been draining the life from this man. John wept as he confessed, and Pat laid hands on him, hugged him, and told John his sins were forgiven.
Then Pat got the second urging from the Holy Spirit: Ask him if he wants to take Communion. He did. Pat gave John a Bible and told him he would be back later. Already John was sitting up straighter, with a flicker of light in his eyes.
Pat visited a few more patients and then ate some lunch in the hospital cafeteria. When he left he wrapped an extra piece of bread in a napkin and borrowed a coffee cup from the cafeteria. He ran out to a shop a few blocks away and bought a container of grape juice. Then he returned to John's room with the elements and celebrated Communion with him, again reciting 1 Corinthians 11. John took the bread and chewed it slowly. It was the first time in weeks he had been able to take solid food in his mouth. He took the cup and swallowed. He had been set free.
Within three days John walked out of that hospital. The nurses were so amazed they called the newspaper, which later featured the story of John and Pat, appropriately, in its "LIFE" section.
44. Why Must We Carry a Cross? - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Canpeople change instantly at salvation?Some traditions call it repentance and renewal. Some call it Sanctification of the believer. Whatever you call it most traditions expect some quick fix to sin. According to this belief, when someone gives his or her life to Christ, there is an immediate, substantive, in-depth, miraculous change in habits, attitudes, and character. We go to church as if we are going to the grocery store: Powdered Christians. Just add water and disciples are born not made.
Unfortunately, there is no such powder and disciples of Jesus Christ are not instantly born. They are slowly raised through many trials, suffering, and temptations. A study has found that only 11 percent of churchgoing teenagers have a well-developed faith, rising to only 32 percent for churchgoing adults. Why? Because true life change only begins at salvation, takes more than just time, is about training, trying, suffering, and even dying (adapted from James Emery White, Rethinking the Church, Baker, 1997, p. 55-57).
Peter took Jesus aside and rebuked him. Why? Peter believes the kingdom of God can be obtained instantly by force. Peter has a worldly view of the Kingdom and Jesus is speaking about a heavenly kingdom. For a moment I would like you to listen to this story with new ears and see Jesus through the eyes of Peter and the rest of the disciples. Get rid of all your notions about who Jesus is. Take away from your mind Jesus as the Son of God. Strip from your memory that he died on the Cross and that he did that for your sins. Forget that Jesus ever said love your enemies or love your neighbor.
Now I want you to think of Jesus only as a military leader like Norman Swartscoff. Imagine that your country has been invaded and is being ruled by godless men. Sense, now, that the tension is mounting and you about to go into battle. That you are about to conduct a coup d'etat. That you and this band of ruffians are going to attempt to overthrow this government by a sudden violent strike. That the odds are stacked against you but you have a very strong belief that God is on your side despite the overwhelming odds.
Now you are thinking like Peter. Jesus comes before his disciples and lays out his military strategy. Look at verse 31. Jesus says, "We are going to march into Jerusalem and your General will suffer many things. We are not going to get any help from our Jewish brothers the Elders. Even the Chief Priest and the Saducees will not join us. Our government the Sanhedrin is corrupt and can be of no help to us. We are going it alone and I will die in this battle.
On this day Jesus spoke plainly to his disciples about the events soon to transpire and even though it was plain language it was not plain enough. Peter was not able to shake his understanding of Jesus as his General so he pulls Jesus aside and rebukes him. He says, "Sir, this is not a very good military strategy. You are not going to die, don't say that. It's not good for morale. We are going to be there with you and we will fight to the end and we will throw these godless Romans out of Israel, you will ascend to the throne in place of Herod, and we will be at your right and left hand as the new leaders of Palestine.
It is fascinating to note that just before Jesus rebukes Peter he turns and looks at his disciples. It is as if Jesus is putting two and two together and realizes the disciples have put Peter up to this. It is a perilous moment in the life of Christ. He must dispel this error from their minds and teach them the meaning of his mission. So, he rejects Peter outright calling him a tool of Satan and says, you do not have in mind the things of God, but the things of men.
Jesus is up against a formidable foe. And in the end this foe may posses more power then he. But the foe is not Peter and it's not the Sanhedrin or Pontius Pilate, or Rome. This formidable foe is not even Satan himself. The powerful enemy of Jesus is our quest for positions of rank and status.
To address the confusion Jesus pulls his disciples together and brings them before a crowd. And in front of the crowd he corrects the disciples aspirations for privilege, rank, and power and he gives them this simple little directive: You must take up your cross and follow me. This morning I would like to ask the question "Why must we carry a cross?" and give three reasons we must do so. We must carry a cross to remind us that…
- We are not the center of the Universe.
- There are others who suffer and we must fight for justice in the lives of others.
- We are responsible in part for the cross that Jesus carried.
45. Antagonist: Antagonists in the Church
Illustration
Kenneth C Haugk
From Antagonists in the Church:How to Identify and Deal With Destructive Conflict
Definition of an antagonist: Someone who on the basis of non-substantive evidence, goes out of their way to make insatiable demands, usually attacking the person or performance of others; these attacks are selfish in nature, tear down rather than build up, and are frequently directed against leadership.
Kinds of antagonists: Hard core (usually irrational, unreasonable) and Major antagonist (possible to reason with them, but they will not be reasoned with).
Identifying Antagonists
- Is his/her behavior disruptive?
- Is the attack irrational?
- Does he/she go out of h/h way to initiate trouble?
- Does h/s make insatiable demands?
- Are h/h concerns minimal or fabricated?
- Does h/s avoid causes that involve personal risk/suffering/sacrifice?
- Does h/h motivation appear selfish?
Red Flags To Watch For:
- Previous track record
- Parallel track record (antagonist at work, school, club, etc.)
- Nameless others: "At least 24 others feel this same way."
- Criticism of predecessor
- Instant buddy
- Gushing praise
- "I Gotcha!" Asks leading questions, tries to trap you.
- Extraordinary likeability
- Church hopper
- Liar
- Uses aggressive means: extreme, combative, unethical
- Flashes $$$
- Takes notes at inappropriate times
- Sarcasm, cutting language
- Different drummer, always doing things their own way
- A pest incessant phone calls, questions, etc.
- The "cause"
Early Warning Signs:
- Chill in the relationship
- Honeyed "concerns" "Dear pastor, I have a concern about ..." may mean "I'm angry!!"
- Nettlesome questions
- Mobilizing forces, pot stirring
- Meddling in others' responsibilities
- Resistance
Later Warning Signs:
- Sloganeering
- Accusing
- Spying
- Distorting
- Misquoting scripture
- "Judas kissing" "I'm your friend, but I have to say..."
- Smirking
- Letter writing (don't respond with a lengthy, reasoned answer)
- Pretense
- Lobbying
Preventing Antagonism:
- Follow established policies
- Functional feedback channels
- Job descriptions
- Broad base of responsibility
- Discipline that works
- Anticipatory socialization let people know plans
- United front within leadership
Relating To Dormant Antagonists:
- Act professionally
- Keep your distance
- Be accurate, don't guess, estimate
- Avoid excessive positive reinforcement
- Tighten the reins
- Don't seek sympathy from others
- Don't form a committee to look into accusations, this only appears to give credibility to their charges
- Don't call for a vote of confidence
46. The Duty of Preparedness
Illustration
William Barclay
Jesus' story was not unfamiliar to his listeners. There was a story during Jesus' day that was told by the Rabbis and it went like this:
There was king who invited his guest to a feast, without telling them the exact date and time; but he did tell them that they must wash, and anoint, and clothe themselves that they might be ready when the summons came. The wise prepared themselves at once, and took their places waiting at the palace door, for they believed that in a palace a feast could be prepared so quickly that there would be no long warning. The foolish believed that it would take a long time to make the necessary preparations and that they would have plenty of time. So they went, the mason to his lime, the potter to his clay, the smith to his furnace, the fuller to his bleaching-ground, and they went on with their work. Then, suddenly, the summons to the feast came without any warning. The wise were ready to sit down, and the king rejoiced over his guest, and they ate and drank. But those who had not arrayed themselves in their wedding garments had to stand outside, sad and hungry. They could only look on at the joy they had lost.
This Rabbinic parable tells of the duty of preparedness for the summons of God, and garments stand for the preparation that must be made.
47. Disconnected Generation
Illustration
Josh McDowell
In the year 2000Josh McDowell wrote abook called, The Disconnected Generation. In it he said, “If I were asked to identify the core reason that our young people are succumbing to the lure of a godless culture I would say it is that they feel alone, disconnected, and unsure of who they really are. Many young people . . . feel disconnected and alienated from their parents, from adults in general, and from society as a whole. Recent scientific studies . . . confirm that our kids today are disconnected from most adults and lack a sense of personal identity and purpose . . . We must . . . understand their makeup and why they feel so painfully disconnected and alone.”
That sounds like a description of today's kids....but wait, I thought we were the connected generation?Interesting, huh? In terms of personal relationships and social skills the current "connected" generation is more disconnected than ever before.
48. Making the Situation Worse
Illustration
Charles Hoffacker
When I was a kid, I was often ravaged by poison ivy. The key to poison ivy, once you have it, is not to scratch. Restraining yourself is hard, for your skin itches and you want relief. But scratching only makes poison ivy worse.
Avarice works the same way. We get infected, and we want to scratch, although we know we shouldn't do so. Possessing more and more promises relief, but only makes the situation worse. We keep scratching, but it's no solution. It just makes the situation worse.
Jesus issues a warning, a warning inspired by a squabble over inheritance, but one that all of us need to hear. He says: "Take care! Be on your guard against all kinds of greed; for one's life does not consist in the abundance of possessions."
Clarence Jordan's translation of this verse brings out its original earthiness. Here's what Jesus says according to Jordan: "You all be careful and stay on your guard against all kinds of greediness. For a person's life is not for the piling up of possessions." In these few words, Jesus rejects much of what keeps our society humming. He warns us against greed, avarice, the desire to possess more than we need, more than we can use, more than we want. Inother words, be content with what you have. Greed will just make your life worse.
49. Watch the Borders
Illustration
Steve Farrar
J. Edgar Hoover ran the FBI many years ago. As a result, almost all of his subordinates were on the lookout for ways to impress their powerful boss. A young FBI man was put in charge of the FBI's supply department. In an effort to cut some costs and impress his boss, he reduced the size of the office memo paper. One of the new memo sheets soon ended up on Hoover's desk. Hoover took one look at it, determined he didn't like the size of the margins on the paper, and quickly scribbled on the memo, "Watch the borders!" The memo was passed on through the office. For the next six weeks, it was extremely difficult to enter the United States by road from either Mexico or Canada. The FBI was watching the borders. Why was the FBI watching the borders? They thought they had received a warning from their chief. But they hadn't. They had transformed an innocuous comment into a solemn warning.
Note: This tale has been passed around as a way to portray how others feared Hoover's reputation for being tough so much so that they dare not question him. Whether it’s a real account of an actual incident or simply a concocted anecdote remains a mystery.
50. The Calm Before the Storm
Illustration
Staff
Itwas in Scotlandin 1881, when a fearful storm swept over that part of the country. Aminister inthe town of Eyemouthhad a great many of the fishermenin his congregation. It had been very stormy weather, and the fishermen had been detained in the harbor for a week. One day, however, the sun shone out in a clear blue sky; it seemed as if the storm had passed away, and the boats started out for the fishing ground. Forty-one boats left the harbor that day. Before they started, the harbor-master hoisted the storm signal, and warned them of the coming tempest. He begged of them not to go; but they disregarded his warning, and away they went. They saw no sign of the coming storm. In a few hours, however, it swept down on that coast, and very few of those fishermen returned. There were five or six men in each boat, and nearly all were lost in that dreadful gale. In the church there were three male members left. Those men were ushered into eternity because they did not give heed to the warning. I lift up the storm signal now, and warn you to escape from the coming judgment!
Note:TheEyemouth Disasterwas a severe European windstorm that struck the south-eastern coast of Scotland, United Kingdom, specifically Berwickshire, on 14 October 1881. One hundred and eighty-nine fishermen, most of whom were from the village of Eyemouth, were drowned. Many citizens of Eyemouth call the day Black Friday
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