1 Therefore, since we are surrounded by such a great cloud of witnesses, let us throw off everything that hinders and the sin that so easily entangles, and let us run with perseverance the race marked out for us. 2 Let us fix our eyes on Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who for the joy set before him endured the cross, scorning its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God. 3 Consider him who endured such opposition from sinful men, so that you will not grow weary and lose heart.
4 In your struggle against sin, you have not yet resisted to the point of shedding your blood. 5 And you have forgotten that word of encouragement that addresses you as sons: "My son, do not make light of the Lord's discipline, and do not lose heart when he rebukes you, 6 because the Lord disciplines those he loves, and he punishes everyone he accepts as a son."
7 Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is not disciplined by his father? 8 If you are not disciplined (and everyone undergoes discipline), then you are illegitimate children and not true sons. 9 Moreover, we have all had human fathers who disciplined us and we respected them for it. How much more should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live! 10 Our fathers disciplined us for a little while as they thought best; but God disciplines us for our good, that we may share in his holiness. 11 No discipline seems pleasant at the time, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest of righteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it.
12 Therefore, strengthen your feeble arms and weak knees. 13 "Make level paths for your feet," so that the lame may not be disabled, but rather healed.
Running For Joy
Hebrews 12:2
Children's Sermon
by King Duncan
Object: Bring a picture of Jesus. As an option, bring a small picture of Jesus for each child. These can be purchased at a Christian Supply Store.
Jesus came and died on the cross for us. Our lesson from the Bible says he did it because of the joy he knew was to come. He couldn't see it at that particular moment, but he knew--he had faith--that it would come. What joy are we talking about? It could be the joy of heaven. It could also be the joy of doing God's will. The first verse says that we are to live our life by keeping our eyes on Jesus because our faith is in him. We weren't there to see him die on the cross, but we have faith that he did because we read about it in the Bible. If Jesus were looking forward to joy in heaven, we can also have the faith that we will have joy in heaven. What a wonderful thing to look forward to. Pass out the pictures. I have a picture for each of you. Take it home and put it some place where you can see it often to remind you that Jesus died for you, and we have the joy of heaven to look forward to.
PRAYER: Thank you, Jesus, for dying for us. Thank you that you did have the faith that the joy of heaven awaits us. Help each of us to have the faith to believe in the same joy. AMEN
Dynamic Preaching, Collected Sermons, by King Duncan
Because of all the examples of faith mentioned in the previous chapter (“cloud of witnesses” meaning we look to them as witnesses to God’s faithfulness, rather than them peering down on us from heaven), believers should get rid of every unnecessary hindrance and run the endurance race set before them (12:1). The Christian life is more like a marathon than a sprint. We should fix our eyes on Jesus, the pioneer and perfecter of our faith, as our ultimate example of perseverance (12:2). He endured the shame of the cross because of his firm confidence in the joy of future resurrection and exaltation. As these listeners considered the example of Jesus, they would also be reminded that they had not yet persevered to the point of martyrdom (12:3–4). In 12:5–11, the metaphor of a dis…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 Therefore, since we are surrounded by such a great cloud of witnesses, let us throw off everything that hinders and the sin that so easily entangles, and let us run with perseverance the race marked out for us. 2 Let us fix our eyes on Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who for the joy set before him endured the cross, scorning its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God. 3 Consider him who endured such opposition from sinful men, so that you will not grow weary and lose heart.
4 In your struggle against sin, you have not yet resisted to the point of shedding your blood. 5 And you have forgotten that word of encouragement that addresses you as sons: "My son, do not make light of the Lord's discipline, and do not lose heart when he rebukes you, 6 because the Lord disciplines those he loves, and he punishes everyone he accepts as a son."
7 Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as sons. For what son is not disciplined by his father? 8 If you are not disciplined (and everyone undergoes discipline), then you are illegitimate children and not true sons. 9 Moreover, we have all had human fathers who disciplined us and we respected them for it. How much more should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live! 10 Our fathers disciplined us for a little while as they thought best; but God disciplines us for our good, that we may share in his holiness. 11 No discipline seems pleasant at the time, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest of righteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it.
12 Therefore, strengthen your feeble arms and weak knees. 13 "Make level paths for your feet," so that the lame may not be disabled, but rather healed.
12:1–4 · Jesus, the superior example of faith:The author now imagines the ancient heroes of faith as a great company of spectators ready to cheer on his readers in a race the former have already completed but which the latter must yet run (12:1–2). The Christian athlete must divest himself of anything that will hamper him in this spiritual race, which is another way of saying that a chief principle of Christian spirituality is self-denial or self-discipline (cf. Matt. 19:27–29; 1Cor. 9:24–27). Further, it will greatly help to avoid a harmful distraction or a loss of heart if believers concentrate their attention on the prize they are to obtain at the end, which is Jesus himself (cf. Phil. 3:8; Col. 3:1–4; Heb. 11:26–27; 12:24). Jesus is to be looked to as the one on whom every believer’s faith “depends from start to finish” (NEB; cf. Heb. 4:14–16). But his life is also the perfect paradigm for the believer, who also will find strength to endure hardship in the prospect of heavenly joy. In verses 3–4 the recipients of this written sermon are reminded that their present suffering—the opposition they are encountering on account of their faith in Christ—is not to be compared with what Christ endured for them, nor even with the trials of many of their spiritual forebears (11:37), and thus provides no excuse for their present faintheartedness.
12:5–13 · The meaning and merit of discipline:The testing of their faith is intended by the Lord to benefit them and indicates his love for them. Any true father disciplines his children, corrects them when they err, and cultivates their maturity by requiring the endurance of adversity. In this, Christians are only following in their master’s footsteps (Heb. 5:8). Though painful at the time, the heavenly Father’s discipline will yield its perfect fruit if believers humbly submit to it as from the Lord, trusting him to help them endure it (1Cor. 10:13; James 1:2–4). In the confidence that such trials inevitably and necessarily litter the straight and narrow road that leads to life, the readers must press on (12:12–13; cf. Isa. 35:3–4 and Prov. 4:25–27, the language of which the author borrows).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Looking to Jesus as the Perfect Pattern
With the glorious history of the faithful in mind, our author turns now to his readers. The standard of faith has been set by the record of God’s faithful people in the past, who moved out into the unknown with confidence and who endured hardship without giving up their expectation of a future fulfillment of the promise. But the author now comes to the supreme example of this kind of faith in Jesus—the name that must be the climax of any list of paragons of faith. Jesus himself endured great suffering without losing sight of the glory that was to come. The readers, together with Christians of every era, are called to walk in the steps of faith that characterized the saints of the past and the one who has now been made Lord. Only such an attitude of faith can sustain them during the adversities they may be called to face.
12:1 The first, and therefore emphatic, word of the original text is a strong inferential particle, therefore. The exhortation now to be given is based on the reality expounded in chapter 11. The community of faith is such that it figuratively surrounds us like a great cloud of witnesses. Witnesses here does not mean observers of the present conduct of Christians but rather those who testify or give evidence of the victorious life of faith. They show that it is possible to live by faith. Motivated by the preceding catalogue of examples, the readers are themselves to live the life of faith. The exhortation is given in figurative language: Let us run with perseverance the race marked out for us. But if the race is to be run (cf. the same imagery in 2 Tim. 4:7), we must put away everything that hinders (lit., “every weight” or “impediment”). The author does not specify any impediments; it is understood that anything that hinders the life of faith as it has been portrayed in the preceding chapter is to be laid aside. One clear obstacle to the life of faith, however, is the sin that so easily entangles. The relation between sin and unbelief has already been the subject of our author’s attention (cf. 3:12, 18f.). The believers’ susceptibility to sin (cf. Rom. 7:21) must not be allowed to thwart them in their pursuit of the goal (cf. 11:25). Taking courage from past examples, the readers are exhorted to complete the course upon which they have embarked.
12:2 An even more significant example of the life of faith is to be found in Jesus, now described as the author (or “pioneer”) and perfecter of our faith. The word for “pioneer” is the same word used in 2:10 (“author,” or “originator,” of salvation; cf. Acts 3:15). Is there a sense in which Jesus can be described as the “originator” of faith? Like Paul (Gal. 3:23–26; cf. John 1:17), our author believes that the people of God could indeed have lived by faith in past generations, but that in a fundamental sense the possibility—or at least the validity—of faith in any era depended and depends upon the work of Christ. That is, because Christ is so central both to the promise and to the fulfillment, because he brings into existence the hoped-for telos (and is therefore the perfecter of faith), he is also the “originator” or “founder” of faith. As perfecter of faith, he brings it to its intended goal. Thus, whether one talks about faith as a possibility or as the experience of fulfillment, all depends upon Jesus. For this reason, Christians must keep looking away from this world to him. He is not only the basis, means, and fulfillment of faith, but in his life he also exemplifies the same principle of faith that we saw in the paragons of chapter 11. Thus, by faith he counted upon the reality of future joy and, assessing present circumstances in light of the glorious future, he endured the cross, scorning its shame. He died as a despised criminal (cf. Phil. 2:8). And that future joy is already his in a preliminary way, for he sat down at God’s right hand. This description of Christ in the language of Psalm 110:1 alludes throughout the book to the completeness of his work (cf. 10:11f.).
12:3 The readers are encouraged to consider Jesus as the one who suffered, who endured such opposition (lit., “hostility”) from sinful men. In this sense Jesus is a model of all the suffering of the righteous at the hands of the enemies of God. Consideration of what Jesus endured will prevent the readers from growing weary and losing heart. Following Jesus as their model, they can endure the most trying of circumstances.
Additional Notes
12:1 The initial word toigaroun may be translated “for that very reason” (see BAGD, p. 821) and may refer particularly to the immediately preceding statement (11:40) that “only together with us would they be made perfect.” The saints of God, both past and present, must arrive at the goal together, and therefore it is up to the readers to emulate the faith of their forebears. Only in this way can the people of God as a unity experience the eschatological consummation of God’s purposes. The word cloud (nephos) is used commonly in Greek literature to indicate a “host” or “company.” This is the only occurrence of the noun “witness” (martys) in Hebrews, except for the quotation of Deut. 17:6 in 10:28. The Greek word had not yet acquired the meaning of “martyr” as one who gives his life for what he believes, which it came to have by the second or third century. See H. Strathmann, TDNT, vol. 4, pp. 504–12. The word for “impediment” (onkos) occurs only here in the Greek Bible. See H. Seesemann, TDNT, vol. 5, p. 41. A textual variant to the Greek word underlying NIV’s that so easily entangles (euperistatos) is found in the early and important P46, which has euperispastos, “easily distracting.” The latter reading may have occurred, however, because of some uncertainty about the meaning of the former word (which is not found elsewhere in the NT, the LXX, or Greek writers prior to the NT). F. F. Bruce (Hebrews, p. 350) quotes E. K. Simpson, who defines the word as meaning “so prone to hamper or trammel.” This has an appropriate significance in the present context. See Metzger, TCGNT, p. 675. Athletic imagery is used frequently in the NT to describe the kind of discipline and dedication needed to live the Christian life (see especially 1 Cor. 9:24–27). This same imagery of the athletic contest is used in describing the sufferings and martyrdoms of the Maccabean age in 4 Macc. 17:9ff. On the metaphorical language of “running a race,” see also Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16. Perseverance or “endurance” (hypomonē) is an important need of the readers (cf. 10:36). If there is a demanding course marked out for (prokeimai, lit., “lying before”) us, there is also a great hope that is also said to lie before us (6:18, using the same verb; cf. the same verb in describing the joy set before Jesus in v. 2).
12:2 The exhortation let us fix our eyes on Jesus continues the metaphor of a race, where the runner must avoid distraction of every kind (cf. “looking unto God,” 4 Macc. 17:10; cf. Acts 7:55). In this case, however, Jesus is appealed to not merely as another example, but as one whose whole existence revolves around faith. NIV’s our faith is better taken literally as “the faith” or “faith” in a more general sense. He is the pioneer and perfecter not simply of the faith of Christians, but of the faith of every era. For “pioneer” (archēgos), see note on 2:10. The word for perfecter (teleiotēs) is found only here in the Greek Bible and does not occur in Greek literature prior to the NT. Our author, however, uses several cognate words (see notes on 2:10; 6:1; 7:11). See G. Delling, TDNT, vol. 8, pp. 86–87. Jesus is referred to in Rev. 1:5 (cf. Rev. 3:14) as “the faithful witness” (ho martys ho pistos). On “faith,” see note to 11:1. For structural analysis see D. A. Black, “A Note on the Structure of Hebrews 12, 1–2,” Biblica 68 (1987), pp. 543–51.
Some have thought that to say that Jesus endured the cross for the joy set before him is to base Jesus’ obedient death upon an unworthy motive. They accordingly prefer to interpret the preposition anti to mean, as it can, “instead of” rather than before (cf. NEB margin: “in place of the joy that was open to him”). This objection, however, fails to understand that the stress on the future hope of the Christian is exactly the point that the author has made to his readers throughout the preceding chapter, and that he wishes to underline here. Furthermore, to say that Jesus was motivated by the joy that was to be his afterwards in no way need exclude the motives of obedience to the Father and the procurement of salvation for the world. Indeed, the joy that Jesus was to experience is inseparable from the accomplishment of God’s saving purposes, and thus in a fundamental sense it is a shared joy (cf. John 17:13). Our author has already pointed out that the purpose of the incarnation was the death of God’s Son and hence the deliverance of the world from sin and death (cf. 2:10, 14f., 17).
Crucifixion was one of the most despicable forms of death in the Roman world. Roman citizens were automatically protected against this form of capital punishment, which was thought suitable only for barbarians. Jesus disregarded totally the shame attached to it. See E. Brandenburger, NIDNTT, vol. 1, pp. 391–403. Among the several allusions to Ps. 110:1, this is the only time the verb for sat down occurs in the perfect tense (the other occurrences are aorists). The emphasis is on the present reign of Christ as the corresponding fulfillment of the joy set before him. On the importance of Ps. 110 for our epistle, see note on 1:3.
12:3 The particular word used here for consider (analogizomai) occurs only here in the NT. The object of the verb, as in v. 2, is the one who suffered rather than the sufferings. The perfect tense of the Greek participle underlying endured (hypomenō) suggests the completed results from Jesus’ endurance of the cross. The word “hostility” (antilogia) in connection with the cross may allude to the derision of Jesus’ enemies (e.g., Matt. 27:39; cf. Ps. 22:7f.). A textual variant supplies a plural instead of a singular reflexive pronoun, resulting in the hostility of sinners being directed “against themselves.” This, however, makes little sense and thus is probably to be rejected despite its superior textual attestation. See Metzger, TCGNT, p. 675. The language of this verse bears some resemblance to the LXX of Num. 17:2f. (16:38 in English translations of the OT). The thought of what Jesus endured should help the readers not to grow weary (kamnō) and lose heart (lit., “fainting in your souls,” ASV). And we know from earlier passages in the epistle that our author is apprehensive for the readers in this regard (cf. 3:12; 4:1; 6:4ff.; 10:26ff., 35).
The Purpose of Chastening
As we have seen, a main purpose of the author throughout the book is to call his readers to faithfulness in the midst of adverse circumstances. Near the end of his epistle he exhorts them to “go forth to him [Jesus] outside the camp and bear the abuse he endured” (13:13, RSV). Although no members of the community have yet suffered martyrdom, the future may involve just that. Any perspective like this, which affirms suffering as the duty of the faithful, must develop a theology of suffering wherein suffering can be understood in a positive light. That is the purpose of the present section. Suffering, far from being a contradiction of the Christian’s status, as the world is inclined to think, is actually a mark of his or her true status. Suffering is necessarily involved in being a child of God and is not a contradiction of God’s love.
12:4 Struggle against sin here signifies, as the context indicates, not the battle of the Christian to keep from sinning (cf. v. 1), but the struggle to avoid apostatizing. It may refer as much to the sin of the enemies of God who persecute his people as to the potential sin of apostasy in the readers themselves. It is this that they are to resist. There have indeed been difficult times in the past (cf. 10:32–34), and perhaps also in the present, but resistance for the readers has not yet come to the point of shedding your blood (i.e., being killed). In that regard they have not equalled the suffering of the supreme paradigm of faith who, as the preceding verses emphasize, went to the cross and paid the ultimate price.
12:5–6 It is possible to understand the opening sentence either as a statement, as in NIV’s you have forgotten, or as a question (cf. RSV, GNB, JB). That the readers are somewhat discouraged is clear. The difficulties they face are such that the author wants to remind them of the place of suffering in the life of faith. They need to remember again that word of encouragement (lit., “encouragement” or “exhortation”) in Scripture which speaks of the advantage of those who are sons. The quotation is from Proverbs 3:11f. What is in view in the present context is a positive kind of discipline that trains a person in obedience. This is the way they are to perceive the adversity they are experiencing: it is a mark of the Lord’s love (cf. Rev. 3:19), on the one hand, and of their sonship, on the other. They are therefore not to lose heart (cf. v. 3).
12:7–8 Having presented the OT quotation, the author now provides another midrashic commentary in which he utilizes the actual words of the quotation to present his argument (for earlier examples of this procedure, see 2:6–9; 3:7–4:10; 10:5–11). This can be seen in the threefold use of the words “discipline” and “sons” (or “son”) in these verses. The root of the word “discipline” (paid-) also occurs once in each of the next three verses. The readers are first exhorted to endure their suffering as discipline and the sign that God is dealing with them as sons. The author continues with a rhetorical question that points to the universality of the disciplining of sons by their fathers (or children by their parents). Indeed, he adds, without the experience of this kind of discipline (and everyone undergoes discipline), one must count oneself as an illegitimate rather than an authentic son or daughter. In short, it is a part of authentic sonship (and not the contradiction of it) to experience the discipline of God as Father. We may recall what is said of Christ in 5:8: “Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he suffered.”
12:9–10In these verses our author draws his analogy further, using an a fortiori form of argument (from the lesser to the greater). As far as our human fathers (lit., “fathers of our flesh”) are concerned, they disciplined us and yet we respected them for it. What seems to be meant by this is that we accepted the discipline without questioning either the authority of our literal parent or our status as legitimate children. All the more then should we be submissive to the Father of our spirits (lit., “the Father of spirits”) and thus live (lit., “we will live”). “The Father of spirits” is our creator, to whom we owe our existence in an ultimate sense. As we are submissive to his discipline we will begin to live the life of the eschaton (cf. 1 Cor. 11:32). The contrast contained in v. 10 makes a similar point. We should be even more receptive to God’s disciplining than we were to our human fathers’. They disciplined us for a little while (lit., “a few days”), that is, during our childhood, and used as their standard only what subjectively they thought best. The implication is that God disciplines us throughout our life and in accordance with his own knowledge of our good, with the final goal that we may share in his holiness. In actuality our character is being formed by the experience of suffering. We are being purified and made to share the holiness of God, especially as revealed in his Son (cf. Rom. 8:29). By connecting suffering with holiness our author sanctifies suffering as something that has a very special purpose in the life of the Christian.
12:11 The author readily admits that, while it is being experienced, the discipline of suffering seems to produce sorrow rather than joy. Yet with the perspective of time the true purpose of such suffering will make itself plain, for those who have suffered will receive a harvest of righteousness and peace (lit., “the peaceful fruit of righteousness,” RSV, NASB). Righteousness, then, is the portion of those who accept the discipline of suffering from their Father’s hand. The point of this verse is the same as that of 2 Corinthians 4:17, where Paul writes: “For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all” (cf. the closely related emphasis of 1 Pet. 1:6f.; 4:12–14).
Additional Notes
12:4 “Resistance to the point of death” is a common motif in Jewish literature, describing absolute commitment and endurance in a struggle against opponents. Our author is exceptional in using the word “blood” rather than “death,” but it is fairly certain that he means martyrdom rather than merely the sustaining of wounds. The particular word for struggle used here (antikathistēmi) occurs only here in the NT. The same is true of the word translated resisted by NIV (antagonizomai). On the use of sin (hamartia) as referring to apostasy, see especially 10:26f. See W. Günther, NIDNTT, vol. 3, pp. 577–83.
12:5–6 The quotation again follows the LXX of Prov. 3:11f. nearly verbatim (the author adds my after the initial son). The LXX follows the Hebrew quite closely except for some slight deviation in the last line. There the LXX has added a verb (NIV’s punishes) and translates the Hebrew verb “delights” with the Greek word “receives” (NIV’s accepts). The added verb strengthens the obvious parallelism with the first line of Prov. 3:12 (Heb. 12:6). It is interesting to note that Philo quotes this same passage in an argument very similar to our author’s, in which suffering is shown to benefit the recipient and is to be regarded as a blessing (On the Preliminary Studies, 175).
12:7–8 The words for discipline are drawn from the same root (verb: paideuō; noun: paideia and paideutēs). Words derived from this root occur twice in the original quotation and no less than six times in the author’s midrashic exposition of the passage (three times in vv. 7–8). On the positive significance of paideia here, as “education for eternity,” see G. Bertram, TDNT, vol. 5, pp. 621–24. The imperative endure (hypomenō) is the same verb used in vv. 2 and 3 in describing Jesus’ endurance of the cross. The readers are thus called to endure as he endured (cf. 10:36). In v. 8 the word everyone (pantes) was probably also suggested to the author by its occurrence in the original quotation (v. 6). The point is not merely that all God’s sons are disciplined, but that all sons universally are disciplined by their fathers. True sons were disciplined by their fathers in order to become worthy heirs; illegitimate children (nothos, which occurs only here in the NT) were not able to inherit and thus were not worth the trouble of such training. Thus those who suffer discipline have established not only their true sonship but also their status as heirs.
12:9–10The a fortiori form of argument is used often in Hebrews (cf. 2:2ff.; 9:14; 10:29; 12:25). The analogy between human fathers and the “heavenly father” is found several times in the teaching of Jesus (e.g., Matt. 7:9–11; 21:28–31; Luke 15:11–32). The expression “fathers of our flesh” stands in contrast to “the Father of spirits.” The former refers clearly to literal, human fathers; the latter to the creator in an absolute sense, and for the Christian in the more specific sense as the Father to whom they have become sons through the new covenant. The phrase “the Father of spirits” (patēr tōn pneumatōn) is similar to “the God of the spirits of all mankind” in Num. 16:22 and 27:16 (cf. “the Lord of spirits” in the Similitudes of Enoch, 1 Enoch 37ff.; cf. 2 Macc. 3:24). No anthropological dualism (wherein God is the creator only of our spirits) is intended by our author. See E. Schweizer, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 141f. In v. 9 human fathers are described as “correctors” (paideutēs), a word that occurs elsewhere in the NT only in Rom. 2:20. The future tense of the verb live orients the reader to an eschatological expectation, as does the full realization of the sharing of his holiness (v. 10) and the reaping of a harvest of righteousness and peace (v. 11). This is akin to the statement in Acts 14:22 that “We must go through many hardships to enter the kingdom of God.” The statement that human fathers disciplined only for a little while suggests the lesser importance of the discipline of human fathers compared to that of God our Father. The advantage of the Father’s disciplining is our participation in his holiness (hagiotēs), an unusual Greek word that is found elsewhere in the NT only in 2 Cor. 1:12.
12:11 The ultimately beneficial character of suffering, despite its present pains, is a familiar motif in the Bible (cf. Ps. 119:67, 71, for benefits in the present life; 2 Thess. 1:5–8 and Matt. 5:10–12, for benefits in the life of the future). With the word trained (gymnazō), the author returns to the athletic games for his imagery, thus ending the passage with language from the same font as that used in verse 1. The fruit of righteousness is called peaceful (eirēnikos) because it is the resolution of the “struggle” (v. 4) brought about by the sufferings of the present time. The latter must always find their truest answer in the final consummation of all things, but this cannot be allowed to weaken the author’s emphasis on the experience of realized eschatology, to which he will turn in 12:18ff.
A Challenge to Holiness and Faithfulness
In the light of the positive view of suffering set forth in the preceding section, the author now again gives a pastoral exhortation to his readers. They are to get on with the business of living the Christian life and to resist the temptation to return to their former ways, though such a retreat may appear to be less troublesome. A negative example, Esau, is provided as a further warning to the readers. This exhortation has much in common with preceding ones (e.g., 2:1–3; 4:1–2; 6:1–6; 10:32–36), but if anything, it carries even more persuasive power because of the material surveyed in chapter 11 and the argument of 12:1–11.
12:12–13 / The unusual imagery of the language of verse 12 is drawn from the LXX of Isaiah 35:3, where the context speaks of eschatological fulfillment, and the following sentence reads: “Tell everyone who is discouraged, ‘Be strong and don’t be afraid.’” The exhortation of this verse, as the context in Isaiah indicates, is thus very pertinent to the condition of the readers. The thrust of the exhortation to strengthen your feeble (or “drooping,” so RSV, NEB) arms (lit., “hands”) and weak knees is that the readers should take heart and thereby receive strength to face their difficult circumstances. The opening words of verse 13 are drawn from the LXX of Proverbs 4:26: Make level paths for your feet, where the parallel line is “order your ways aright.” The reference to the lame probably came to the author by the prompting of the words of Isaiah 35:3 in verse 12. Where there are weakness and drooping limbs there may also be lameness (see also Isa. 35:6). And if we associate avoidance of lameness with level paths, feet (as in NIV) may, in keeping with Proverbs 4:26, be thought of to go along with arms (“hands”) and knees. Disabled is literally “turned aside,” probably in the sense of “dislocated” (cf. RSV: “put out of joint”). Thus, if the readers make their paths straight, living in a way that is pleasing to God, what is lame and painful will be healed, rather than aggravated. The metaphorical language of these verses, from what we know elsewhere in Hebrews, may be assumed to constitute a graphic portrayal of the condition of the readers.
12:14 The exhortation of this verse appears to be more general, much like that found in other NT epistles. The readers are told to “pursue” (which NIV translates make every effort to live in) peace with all men and to be holy (“holiness”). The language “pursue peace” stems from Psalm 34:14 and is found also in Romans 14:19 and 1 Peter 3:11 (cf. Heb. 12:18; 2 Cor. 13:11; 2 Tim. 2:22; 1 Thess. 5:13). The exhortation to holiness, of course, is common in the NT. Holiness has already been set forth as the goal of the Christian in verse 10. If we remember that suffering and holiness are connected, the one producing the other, we may see the present exhortation as specifically pertinent to the readers. To see the Lord refers to the end of the age. “But we know that when he appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is” (1 John 3:2). It is worth noting that in two successive beatitudes Jesus refers to “the pure in heart” who will “see God” and the peacemakers who will be called “sons of God” (Matt. 5:8–9).
12:15 The exhortation in this verse is directed to what is apparently the main concern of the author. Again and again we have seen this concern emerge (e.g., 2:1ff.; 3:12ff.; 4:1ff.; 6:4ff.; 10:23, 26ff., 35). Here he appeals to the responsibility of the community for each of its members. Thus they are to see to it that no one misses the grace of God. The members of the community are to be accountable for one another (which may also be the point made in 10:25). The exhortation is restated in the language of Deuteronomy 29:18 about a bitter root that can grow and defile others around it. The appropriateness of the allusion is plain from Deuteronomy 29:19: “When such a person hears the words of this oath, he invokes a blessing on himself and therefore thinks, ‘I will be safe, even though I persist in going my own way.’ This will bring disaster on the watered land as well as the dry.” (Cf. GNB: “That would destroy all of you, good and evil alike.”) The lapse of one member (or more) of the community will have its inevitable effect on others and is therefore to be prevented insofar as it is possible.
12:16–17 The reference in the preceding exhortation to the danger of “missing the grace of God” is now reinforced by the example of the unfortunate Esau. The community is to attempt to prevent anyone from becoming like him. Esau is described as godless (lit., “irreligious”) because he traded his inheritance rights (lit., “birthright”) as the oldest son for a meal of bread and pottage (Gen. 25:33f.). In this regard Esau is the antithesis of the paragons of faith in chapter 11. He trades off what is unseen and what lies in the future for immediate gratification in the present (cf. 11:25f.). He thus forfeited the inheritance that was his right as the first-born. Later Esau bitterly regretted his decision because when he wanted to inherit this (lit., “the”) blessing, he was rejected. For there was no going back on his decision; he could bring about no change of mind (lit., “he found no way of repentance”). Repentance was not a possibility although he sought it with tears (Gen. 27:30–40). This warning concerning Esau’s sad plight is reminiscent of the author’s warning to the readers in 6:4ff. (cf. 10:26f.) about the impossibility of repentance for those who abandon the faith. Esau found no way back from his decision; the readers must learn from this how serious apostasy is, and not count upon an easy return to Christianity in more convenient times.
Additional Notes
12:12–13 / The imagery of Isa. 35:3 appears to have exercised influence on other writers besides the author of Hebrews, Thus Sirach also refers to “drooping hands and weak knees” (25:23; cf. 2:12; Zeph. 3:16). The word that describes knees as “tired” (paralyō) is used to describe the paralyzed man healed by Jesus in Luke 5:18–26. The word translated strengthen (anorthoō) occurs elsewhere in the NT only in Luke 13:13 and Acts 15:16. The rare word for paths (trochia), drawn from Prov. 4:26, occurs only here in the NT. Lame (chōlos) is the commonly used word in the NT, occurring only here in Hebrews. “Turned aside” (ektrepō) occurs elsewhere in the NT only in the Pastorals where it regularly means “to go astray.” Perhaps in light of v. 15 an echo of this meaning may be seen here (note, too, level [lit., “straight”] paths). The common verb healed (iaomai) occurs only here in Hebrews.
12:14 In the great benediction of 13:20f. God is referred to as “the God of peace.” The word for holiness in this verse (hagiasmos) is usually translated “sanctification” in the NT (e.g., the RSV of Rom 6:19, 22; 1 Cor. 1:30; 1 Thess. 4:3). This word occurs only here in Hebrews. Its meaning, however, is not different from the related word used in v. 10. Sanctification is a state of holiness, and it is this that the readers are to pursue. Holiness is set forth as an essential requirement of the Christian particularly in 1 Pet. 1:15: “Just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do,” words that are followed by a quotation from Leviticus (11:44f.; 19:2). See also Matt. 5:48. On the eschatological vision of God, see Rev. 22:4.
12:15 Underlying NIV’s see to it is the Greek word episkopeō, which has the sense of “overseeing” or “caring for.” This word (and its cognate noun), which here apparently refers to the responsibility of the entire community, soon becomes applied specifically to the official church leadership. The only other occurrence of the verb in the NT is in 1 Pet. 5:2. Underlying NIV’s misses is the Greek word hystereō (lit., “fall short”), the same verb used in the same connection in 4:1. The expression the grace of God occurs earlier in 2:9 where it refers to the atoning death of Jesus. Our author’s words cause trouble (from the verb enochleō) probably represent a minor corruption of the LXX text (which reads pen cholē “in gall”; cf. GNB’s addition of the words “with its poison”). Because “trouble” and “gall” are fairly similar in meaning, the slight alteration of the LXX text is not serious. The result of such a bitter root in the community is literally “that the many become defiled.” The word “defiled” (miainō) here is used for both ceremonial (John 18:28; 1 Macc. 1:63) and moral (Titus 1:15) uncleanness. In the present context the defilement has to do with tendencies toward apostasy.
12:16–17 As with his examples in chap. 11, the suitability of the example of Esau for the author’s point is so striking that it is easy to imagine the diligence with which he searched his OT for appropriate illustrative material. It is debatable whether both sexually immoral and godless are to be understood as referring to Esau. That our author has a concern about sexual immorality among the readers seems clear from 13:4. It is also clear that Esau is portrayed in Jewish tradition as guilty of sexual immorality (see Strack-Billerbeck for examples). In the present context the second word is obviously appropriate. Esau was “irreligious” (bebēlos) because he had no regard for his lineage or for the covenant promises associated with that lineage. This is in obvious contrast to the portrayal of Jacob in 11:21. When Esau is said to have wanted to inherit this blessing, what is meant of course is the restoration of his birthright as the first-born son. He was rejected (apodokimazō) may perhaps be better translated “declared disqualified” (cf. BAGD, p. 90). The word for “repentance” (metanoia) occurs in a similar connection in 6:6. It is difficult to know whether the antecedent of it (autēn) at the end of v. 17 is “repentance” or the blessing (added by NIV), both of which are feminine nouns. The difference, however, is only slight, since the “repentance” was after all designed to repossess the blessing. Futility in one meant futility in the other, and thus either could have been the source of Esau’s anguish.
The Glory of the Christian’s Present Status
In one of the most remarkable passages in the whole book, the author presents a vivid contrast between Mount Sinai and Mount Zion, between the essential character of the old and new covenants. In so doing he provides a startling portrait of the readers’ possession in and through Christ. It would be difficult to find a more impressive and moving expression of realized eschatology in the entire NT. The author’s purpose is to enlarge the horizons of the readers to enable them to comprehend the true glory of what they participate in as Christian believers. What they are presently tempted to return to, their former Judaism, pales significantly in the comparison (cf. 2 Cor. 3:4–18). Those who have been to Mount Zion can never contemplate a return to Mount Sinai.
12:18 The vocabulary of this and the following verse is drawn to a large extent from the LXX accounts of Moses on Sinai (esp. Deut. 4:11; 5:22–25; Exod. 19:12–19). The allusion cannot have been missed by the original readers. The manifestations of God’s presence on Sinai were tangible, that is, they could be experienced by the senses. The fire, darkness, gloom, and storm made a vivid impression on the Israelites.
12:19–20 They also heard a trumpet blast and a voice speaking words. According to the Exodus narrative (20:19) the people indicated to Moses their fear of God’s voice. “Speak to us yourself and we will listen. But do not have God speak to us or we will die.” This same fear is also recorded in Deuteronomy (5:25): “We will die if we hear the voice of the LORD our God any longer.” It was not only the actual hearing of God’s voice that frightened the Israelites, but also the stern commands he uttered. Our author provides an example in the prohibition against touching the holy mountain. The awesome and absolute holiness of God’s presence was unapproachable. Even an animal was to be stoned if it touched the mountain (the quotation is from Exod. 19:13). The result of the Israelites’ fear was that they wanted no further word to be spoken to them.
12:21 According to our author, even Moses was filled with fear at the spectacle of the theophany at Sinai. The words attributed to him are not found in the OT. The closest resemblance to them is found in Deuteronomy 9:19, where, after the rebellion of the Israelites in the wilderness, Moses says, “I feared the anger and wrath of the Lord.” The author’s picture of the giving of the law at Sinai, then, is one in which fear and the sternness of God’s commands predominate. This picture stands in very great contrast to the picture of the new covenant situation the author now presents.
12:22 The opening of this verse picks up the opening verb of verse 18. The perfect tense of this verb, you have come, indicates arrival some time in the past with continued enjoyment of the results of that arrival in the present. By the use of this tense the author clearly means to stress that what he is about to describe is in some way already enjoyed by the readers. They have come to Mount Zion, a mountain of even greater significance than the mountain alluded to in the preceding verses. Mount Zion is synonymous with Jerusalem in the OT (e.g., 2 Sam. 5:6f.; 2 Kings 19:21; Ps. 2:6; 9:11). Here it is further described as the heavenly Jerusalem, that eschatological expectation referred to in Revelation 21:2 (cf. Gal. 4:26; 2 Bar. 4:2ff.) and the city of the living God, a city already mentioned as Abraham’s true goal (11:10; cf. 11:16). In 13:14 it is written: “we are looking for the city that is to come.” Thus the readers already enjoy in the present the eschatological city of the future (cf. Eph. 2:6). Here again we encounter the tension between realized and future eschatology (e.g., 1:2; 4:3; 6:5; 9:11; 10:1). Christians have experienced fulfillment, but fulfillment short of consummation. The readers are also said to have come to thousands upon thousands (lit., “myriads” or “tens of thousands”) of angels. In Deuteronomy 33:2, “myriads of holy ones” are associated with the appearance of the Lord at Sinai; in Daniel 7:10, “ten thousand times ten thousand” serve before the throne of God. These hosts are also present in the city, the heavenly Jerusalem (cf. the marriage supper of the Lamb, Rev. 19:6).
12:23 The readers have come to the church, the gathering of those who have been “called out” to form the people of God, as his firstborn, whose names are inscribed in heaven (cf. Luke 10:20). This most probably refers to the believers of the new covenant era. Together this community of believers in Christ constitutes the firstborn in that they have become the heirs of the promise (cf. Rom. 8:17). The Jerusalem Bible captures the sense of the passage well: “with the whole Church in which everyone is a ‘first-born son’ and a citizen of heaven.” The readers, in short, have come (NIV resumes the original verb) into the very presence of God, the judge of all. Despite the awesome reality of God as judge (cf. v. 29), they have no need to be afraid, like the Israelites who were afraid at Sinai even of God’s voice, because through Christ they now are free to approach God even in his role as judge. With this freedom we may compare the boldness of the Christian’s free access into God’s presence through the sacrificial work of Christ (e.g., 4:16; 6:19; 7:25; 10:19ff.). The spirits of righteous men (i.e., “people”) made perfect is probably a reference to the OT people of God. They are referred to as spirits because they await the resurrection. More particularly they are described as having been made perfect in that, together with the readers and all Christians, they have arrived at the goal, the city of God, the final purpose of God that was first expressed to them, albeit in shadowy figures. This is in accord with what the author wrote about the OT saints in 11:40.
12:24 The readers, finally, have come to Jesus the mediator of a new covenant. This climactic fact is the very basis of all that has been described beginning in verse 22. And the reference to the new covenant here redirects the reader to one of the author’s central arguments (7:22; 8:6–13; 9:15). The sprinkled blood of Jesus refers to his sacrificial work of atonement. This imagery has also been utilized earlier in the description of the levitical practice (9:13f., 19, 21), and also once in the description of the work of Christ (10:22; cf. 1 Pet. 1:2). The blood of Jesus speaks a better word (lit., “speaks better”) than the blood of Abel. In 11:4 our author took note of Abel, writing that “by faith he still speaks, even though he is dead.” Here, however, the reference appears to be to Genesis 4:10, where the blood of Abel “cries out to me from the ground.” This is the message of the blood of Abel. But the blood of Christ speaks of better things—most conspicuously of the forgiveness of sins associated with the inauguration of the new covenant (8:12; 10:17f.). Christ’s atoning blood speaks of the end of the old covenant and the establishment of the new. It is this blood that has brought the readers to the benefits of the new covenant and to their present glorious status wherein they have begun to experience the fulfillment, the goal of God’s saving purposes, the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem.
Additional Notes
12:18 A number of manuscripts (followed by NIV) include with that can be touched the word mountain (oros), thus a mountain that can be touched. The best manuscripts, however, omit the word, and its presence in some is probably due to the influence of v. 22 (cf. v. 20). The perfect tense of the verb have come implies “to come to and remain at.” This same tense is even more significant in the positive statement beginning in v. 22, where the verb is repeated. Only the words for touched (psēlaphaō) and gloom (zophos) are not drawn from LXX descriptions of the Sinai theophany.
12:19–20 The reference to a trumpet blast and voice is again drawn from the LXX of Exod. 19:16. According to the LXX of Exod. 19:13, the man or beast who touched the mountain was to be stoned or shot through with a dart. In both forms of execution the one killed is thus kept at a distance. This is in keeping with the dangerous potential for “contamination” by God’s holiness (cf. 2 Sam 6:7), even secondhand. See E. Pax, EBT, pp. 372–75. A certain irony may be seen in the fact that although Sinai and the attendant phenomena are described as “tangible,” yet neither man nor animal was allowed to touch the mountain.
12:21 The word for sight (phantazō) occurs only here in the NT. In Hellenistic literature the word is used to describe the “spectacle” of a theophany. See BAGD, p. 853. Possibly the reference to Moses’ fear and trembling is drawn from Jewish traditions concerning the giving of the law at Sinai (cf. Acts 7:32, but there the trembling is in connection with the burning bush).
12:22 The literal Mount Zion and Jerusalem, because of their great importance, eventually came to be understood as archetypes of the greater eschatological reality to come. On Zion and the new Jerusalem, see E. Lohse, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 319–38. For city of the living God, see note on 11:10. F. F. Bruce points out that the main verb you have come to implies conversion (the root occurring here, proselēlythate, produces the English word “proselyte”). A difficult question of interpretation hinges on whether the Greek word panegyris (“festal gathering”) is to be taken with what precedes, “the myriad of angels” (NIV, RSV, JB), or with what follows, “the community of the first-born” (KJV, ASV, NEB, and GNB), or whether it is to be understood independently. It is almost certainly not to be taken independently since all other discrete entities referred to in the list are connected with “and” (kai), whereas there is no connective preceding panegyris here. The presence of a connective kai following it, however, makes it most natural to associate the word with the angels, thus thousands upon thousands of angels in joyful assembly. See Hughes’s detailed note, Hebrews, pp. 552–55. On panegyris, see H. Seesemann, TDNT, vol. 5, p. 722. On the presence of angels in the heavenly realm and in an eschatological setting, cf. Revelation, which has the highest occurrence of references to angels of any NT book. See H. Bietenhard, NIDNTT, vol. 1, pp. 101–3, and note on 1:4 above.
12:23 Much debate has taken place concerning the meaning of the church of the firstborn. Such different possibilities as the following have been suggested: angels, OT saints, the first Christians, Christians who have died, and Christian martyrs. The accompanying reference to the names which are written in heaven makes it improbable that angels are meant, since this expression always refers to believers (e.g., Phil. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 20:15). The firstborn could be interpreted to be the OT saints—first-born in the sense of preceding Christians. But given our author’s convictions about the new covenant, it is improbable that he would restrict this title to the people of the earlier covenant (cf. James 1:18, which refers to Christians as “a kind of first fruits”). On firstborn (prōtotokos), which refers to Christians only here in the NT, see W. Michaelis, TDNT, vol. 6, p. 881; Hughes, Hebrews, pp. 552–55; and note to 1:6 above. Moreover the author’s deliberate use of the word ekklēsia (church) may be intended to point to the church (cf. KJV, ASV, NASB, and JB). The word ekklēsia in itself, of course, does not necessarily signify the church; it can, as in the only other occurrence of the word in Hebrews (2:12), simply mean “congregation” or “assembly.” Thus the word is translated here “assembly” (RSV, NEB) and “gathering” (GNB). See K. L. Schmidt, TDNT, vol. 3, pp. 501–36.
Earlier our author described the community of believers, of which the readers are a part, as “God’s house” (3:6). Here it is they who are said to comprise the city of God. This is the only place in Hebrews where God is called judge (kritēs), although the idea occurs several times (e.g., 2:3; 4:1; 6:8; 9:27; 10:27, 30f., 12:29). The word spirits is not to be taken as a technical term of biblical anthropology (to be distinguished from soul), but simply as referring to the spiritual or immaterial part of human beings. See E. Schweizer, TDNT, vol. 6, pp. 445f. The word righteous (dikaios) was used earlier in 10:38 (in the quotation of Hab. 2:4) and in 11:4, where Abel is described as “a righteous man.” The word is thus ideal to describe the exemplars of faith mentioned in chap. 11. It is possible, however, as some have argued (e.g., Delitzsch, Westcott, Hughes), that this clause refers universally to people of faith in all eras, old and new. See W. J. Dumbrell, “‘The Spirits of Just Men Made Perfect,’” EQ 48 (1976), pp. 154–59. On the verb made perfect (teleioō), so important to our author, see note to 2:10.
12:24 The word for mediator (mesitēs) is also used in referring to Jesus in 8:6 and 9:15. See note on 8:6. The word for “new” in new covenant here is neos rather than kainē, as it is in the other references to the new covenant in the epistle (8:8, quoting Jer. 31:31; 9:15), but no difference is intended by this synonym. For “covenant,” see note on 7:22. For the “sprinkling” of blood (the noun rhantismos occurs only here in Hebrews), see notes on 9:7 and 9:13. This is the last occurrence of the word better (kreittōn) in the epistle. On this very important word for our author, see note to 1:4.
A Final Warning Concerning Rejection
Our author turns once again to warning his readers not to lapse from their Christian faith and commitment. This warning, however, is wonderfully counterbalanced by stress on the ultimate security of those who remain faithful. The options are thus finally put before the readers with the utmost clarity. If they reject the truth of the gospel they will not escape judgment. But if they persevere in their faith, they are to know that they are the recipients of a kingdom that has no end. This passage, which rounds out so powerfully the argument that began in 2:1 with a passage so strikingly similar to the present one, is essentially the conclusion of the author’s main argument and appeal. Chapter 13, as we shall see, functions more as an appendix to what precedes than an extension of the argument any further.
12:25 This verse and the next build upon the contrast drawn between Sinai and Zion in the preceding passage. The author has presented virtually the same argument several times already (2:1ff.; 4:11f.; 10:28f.). Arguing from the lesser to the greater (a fortiori), he points to the obvious and painful reality of the judgment experienced by the Israelites in their disobedience to the covenant at Sinai and then to the proportionately greater judgment deserved by those who turn away from the greater revelation of the new covenant. In the present instance, the Israelites refused to hear God’s voice (cf. v. 19f.), not only literally, but in the sense that they did not obey his commands (cf. 3:17f.). It was God’s voice they refused to hear when he spoke to them on earth through his servant Moses (see Deut. 5:4f.). And to refuse God’s word is to reject God himself. Thus the opening warning is that the readers not refuse him who speaks. The reference to him who warned them on earth in the events of Sinai just described (vv. 18–21) should probably not be understood as Moses, but as God speaking through Moses. If, therefore, the readers abandon their faith, they turn away from (lit., “reject”) the one (NIV adds, probably correctly, who warns us) from heaven. That is, they refuse God’s word from heaven, the gospel and all that is entailed in the fulfillment it brings. Our author wrote at the beginning of his epistle that “in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son” (1:2). This is the word from heaven that the readers are tempted to reject. But the greater the light, the more serious is its rejection. The readers are therefore to see to it that they do not reject the truth they have received.
12:26 At that time refers to the giving of the law at Sinai. It was the voice of God that then shook the earth (cf. v. 19; Exod. 19:18; Ps. 68:8). The now refers not to the past giving of the promise, but to the present expectation of its imminent fulfillment. God has promised a future shaking of the earth, and now that we are in the last days, that event can be expected in the near future. The quotation is from Haggai 2:6 (cf. 2:21). What is in view in these words from Haggai is the judgment that will take place in connection with the coming of the eschaton. The future shaking of the heavens has already been mentioned by our author in his quotation of Psalm 102:25–27 in 1:10–12 (cf. Matt. 24:29).
12:27 The writer again offers a brief midrashic commentary for his readers. The words once more from the quotation are explained as referring to the eschatological judgment (unlike the earlier “shaking”), and this shaking involves the purging of created things (lit., “as of things made”) so that (or “in order that”) only what cannot be shaken may remain. But what can be shaken will be, and this is what makes the prospect of eschatological judgment such a fearful thing (cf. v. 29).
12:28–29 The readers, however, have good reason to be thankful, for they are the recipients of an unshakable kingdom. Kingdom here refers to what may be described as the fruit of the new covenant. Thus, like the reality of the kingdom of God mentioned frequently in the NT, it is the experience of the reign of God made possible by the reconciling grace of God in Christ. It thus is the new quality of life, the new existence, made possible through the fulfillment of the promises of a new covenant. Since this is the result of God’s work, it remains secure through any future shaking of the world. By this thankful frame of mind and the faithful response that will accompany it, we will worship (or “serve”) God acceptably, namely, in a way that produces reverence and awe. Reverence and awe remain appropriate words even for the worship and service of the Christian, for God is “the judge of all” (cf. v. 23); and in the eschatological judgment, he is a consuming fire (cf. 10:30f.). This description of God is a quotation from Deuteronomy 4:24 (cf. Deut. 9:9), where Moses is exhorting the people to faithfulness to the covenant. God remains the same despite the new circumstances of the new covenant. In light of all this, the readers are to be thankful for what is theirs in Christ and to put out of mind all thoughts of lapsing from their Christianity to their former way of life.
Additional Notes
12:25 The a fortiori form of the argument is more obvious from the original, which reads “how much more shall we not escape.” The same verb for see to it (blepō) is used earlier in 3:12 in a similar connection. That the verb for refused (paraiteomai) is the same as that used in v. 19 (NIV’s “begged”) lends some support to the conclusion that it is God’s voice and not Moses’ that is refused. A contrast may be intended between the voice of Moses and the voice of God (or Christ?), as some translations suggest (e.g., NASB, NEB, JB; cf. Moffatt: “For if they failed to escape, who refused to listen to their instructor upon earth, much less shall we escape, if we discard Him who speaks from heaven”). NIV’s him who warned them on earth is rightly left ambiguous, since it may equally well be God speaking through Moses.
The word speaks, since it is the same verb as in the preceding verse, may readily be associated with the “better things” there mentioned. In the Greek text the words they and we are emphatic. The verb escape (ekpheugō) is the same as that used in the parallel passage in 2:3. Warned them translates the same verb (chrēmatizō) used in 8:5 and 11:7, both of which refer to God speaking (to Moses and Noah respectively). Heaven is clearly regarded as the abode of God (e.g., 8:1; 9:24; 12:23). Turn away translates apostrephō, which is practically synonymous with “apostatize” (cf. Titus 1:14).
12:26 The perfect tense of the Greek underlying has promised indicates the continuing validity of the promise. The quotation follows the LXX of Hag. 2:6 very closely. Our author adds the words not only and but also and transposes the order of heaven and earth with a resultant emphasis on the shaking of heaven. On the general expectation of an eschatological shaking of heaven and earth, see passages such as Isa. 2:19, 21; 13:13 (cf. 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 16:18ff.; 21:1). See G. Bornkamm, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 196–200, and G. Bertram, TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 65–70. The present experience of the benefits of the eschatological age (see note on 1:2) leads naturally to an expectation of the imminence of eschatology proper.
12:27 More extensive midrashic treatments of OT quotations can be seen in 2:8f.; 3:12–4:10; 8:13; 10:8–10; and 12:7–11. The argument is that the words once more indicate something yet to come. From our author’s perspective this must refer to eschatological judgment of the created order. This judgment has as its goal the revealing of what cannot be shaken, what is a permanent part of the new creation already (cf. 13:20 “the eternal covenant”). The removing translates metathesis, a word that occurs twice earlier in Hebrews (7:12, where it refers to “a change of the law,” and 11:5, where it refers to the taking up of Enoch).
12:28–29 The only other place in Hebrews where kingdom is used positively, in the sense of “God’s kingdom,” is in the quotation of Ps. 45:6 in 1:8. Our author, if he is not dependent upon the Gospel tradition, may have drawn the term from a passage like Dan. 7:27. The present participle receiving suggests a careful balance between present and future eschatology. We are in the process of receiving the kingdom now; we will receive it finally in the future. The verb for worship is latreuō, used earlier in describing the service of the levitical priests (e.g., 8:5; 9:9; 10:2; 13:10; cf. the cognate noun in 9:1 and 6), but here, as in 9:14, it is used to describe the spiritual life of the Christian. See H. Strathmann, TDNT, vol. 4, pp 58–65. The adverb underlying acceptably (euarestōs) occurs only here in the NT (the cognate adjective occurs in 13:21, however). Reverence (eulabeia) occurs here and in 5:7 in the NT. See note on 5:7. The word for awe (deos) occurs only here in the Greek Bible. God in his role as judge is described several times in the OT in the imagery of a consuming fire (e.g., Isa. 26:11; 33:14; Zeph. 1:18; 3:8). Our author has earlier used this imagery in 10:27.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by Donald A. Hagner, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
The word for “blood” in the Bible is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:34), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.
The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).
Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).
The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).
During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).
Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).
The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (Rev. 12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.
A cross is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were either tied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. The Latin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly used by the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, which allowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John 19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.).
Not long before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish ruler Alexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees who opposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character for the Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as well as by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans who perfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romans called crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because it was intended for the lowest members of society. It became the preferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion, spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common in NT times and extended well into the fourth century AD.
As for the significance of Jesus’ crucifixion, the OT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev. 17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar for the sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins of the world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatest atoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for a new covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). The cross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died “for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shame of the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood (Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesus also bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross. The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’s curse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’s curse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesus demonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by his obedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesus the cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for a worthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love in the Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and follow his example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ cross is a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Most of all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offered his Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1John 4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, who willingly laid down his life (1John 3:16).
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
Literally, fruit is the seed-bearing part of a plant. It constitutes an important part of the diet in the ancient Near East. Common fruits are olives, grapes, and figs, though many other varieties of fruit are also available, including apples, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, dates, and melons. Fruit trees play a prominent role as a food source in God’s creation and preparation of the garden of Eden (Gen. 13). The law prohibits the Israelites from cutting down their enemy’s fruit trees (Deut. 20:19). The abundance of fruit trees characterizes the land that God has prepared for Israel (Deut. 8:8; Neh. 9:25) as well as the final restoration (Ezek. 47:12; Joel 2:22; Rev. 22:2).
One aspect of fruit is that it grows from a plant. This use of the term is often extended to represent what emerges from something else. Thus, fruit may represent offspring, whether human or animal (Deut. 7:13; 28:4), one’s actions (Matt. 7:16–20), the result of one’s actions or choices (Prov. 1:31; 10:16; Jer. 17:10), or words coming from one’s mouth (Prov. 12:14; Heb. 13:15). In the NT especially, producing much fruit symbolizes performing deeds that are pleasing to God (Matt. 3:8; 13:23; Mark 4:20; John 15:16; Rom. 7:4; Col. 1:10). Those who live by the Spirit produce the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). The apostle Paul speaks of the first converts in a particular region as being firstfruits, probably referring to their conversion as the result of the gospel being preached in the area (Rom. 16:5; 2Thess. 2:13).
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar of Israel’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22; 2Sam. 21:910). Life was dependent on the harvest. As a result, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help the Israelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and every fiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10; Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, even during the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were to be left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the source of the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10). Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa. 9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5; 20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa. 62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool (1Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer. 8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for the harvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
The harvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talk about the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is called the firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses the idea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future (Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy for those needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for the end times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson about unfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainder of the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth and salvation (Rom. 1:13; 1Cor. 9:10–11; 2Cor. 9:10; Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.
Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.
Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.
The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).
It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.
Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).
John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).
Closely related to honor and respect and often translating the Hebrew and Greek words for “fear,” reverence is directed primarily toward the sacred or divine, such as God’s sanctuary (Lev. 19:30; 26:2), the temple (Ps. 5:7), God’s name (Rev. 11:18), God himself (Dan. 6:26; Mal. 2:5), and his messengers, the angel of the Lord (Josh. 5:14), and Peter (Acts 10:25). Reverence for God motivates behavior that honors him, such as just governance (Neh. 5:15), mutual submission (Eph. 5:21), purity (2Cor. 7:1), and obedience (Col. 3:22). It is an attitude of acceptable worship (Heb. 12:28), connected with humility (Jer. 44:10), which may win over unbelievers (1Pet. 3:2).
Righteousness is an important theme in both Testaments of the Bible. The concept includes faithfulness, justice, uprightness, correctness, loyalty, blamelessness, purity, salvation, and innocence. Because the theme is related to justification, it has important implications for the doctrine of salvation.
Being careful to avoid imposing Western philosophical categories onto OT texts, we may say that the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justness, justice, integrity, and faithfulness. Behind the many and varied uses of righteousness language in the OT stands the presupposition that God himself is righteous in the ultimate sense (e.g., Ezra 9:15; Isa. 45:21; Zeph. 3:5). Righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Isa. 5:16), and all other nuances of righteousness in the biblical texts are derived from this.
Related to humans, righteousness is often found as the opposite of wickedness. Righteousness often occurs in evaluative contexts, where it relates to proper conduct with respect to God, the order of the world as he created it, the covenant, or law (e.g., Deut. 6:25). God reigns in righteousness and justice (e.g., Ps. 97:2), and humans should align their conduct with this righteous reign. Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity with phrases such as “my righteousness” (2Sam. 22:21, 25; Ps. 7:8) and “their righteousness” (1Sam. 26:23). Unrighteousness is found in poetic parallel to injustice (e.g., Jer. 22:13); the unjust are parallel with the wicked (Ps. 82:2).
Righteousness language is more rare in the Gospels than one might expect in light of OT and Jewish intertestamental usage. These references fit with the Jewish setting: righteousness is required of God’s people, and unrighteousness is to be avoided. Righteousness is proper conduct with respect to God or Torah (Matt. 21:32) in contrast to wickedness (Matt. 13:49). Righteousness could be conceived as one’s own (e.g., Luke 18:9) and has its reward (Matt. 10:41). While the specific terms related to righteousness are infrequent in the Gospels, the broader concept of conformity to God’s will is widely apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT Epistles continue these general strands of the concept. Righteousness is related to personal conduct (1Thess. 2:10; 1Tim. 6:11; 2Tim. 2:22; 1Pet. 2:24) and is contrasted with wickedness (2Cor. 6:14); it is a matter of doing, not knowing (Rom. 2:13). An example of righteousness in doing is the kindness shown by the prostitute Rahab, who hid the Israelite spies (James 2:25).
The NT does signal some new dimensions related to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 57), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching and directives, a shocking display of authority. In his mission to call sinners rather than the “righteous” (e.g., Mark 2:17), Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous.” In similar manner, personal righteousness in terms of a righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rom. 10:3; Phil. 3:6; cf. Luke 18:9).
The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (John 17:25; Rom. 3:5; 9:14; Heb. 6:10; cf. Matt. 6:33). His judgments are righteous (Rom. 2:5), and his commands and laws are righteous (Rom. 7:12; 8:4). God is a righteous judge (2Tim. 4:8). His saving activity is righteous; he does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rom. 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human unrighteousness and wickedness (Rom. 3:5; James 1:20). Since God reigns over creation in righteousness, human conduct should conform to that standard (e.g., Rom. 14:17). Jesus is also noted as righteous (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1Pet. 3:18; 1John 2:1, 29). He fulfilled righteousness in the absolute sense of demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1Pet. 3:18). He also fulfilled God’s righteousness in the sense of his saving activity toward humans (e.g., 2Pet. 1:1).
Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’s commandment to the contrary (2:1617), Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. When Adam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete. They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaves were inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with their attempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent, Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
In the midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways that sin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised to put hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of the woman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blow upon the offspring of the woman, the offspring of the woman would defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequate covering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implication is that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adam and Eve, covering their sin.
In one sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holy God satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationship with human beings without compromising his justice? The short answer is: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), who eventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemed them from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought them to Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated on obedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant was the sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided as a means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrifices made for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year to atone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement the high priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies and sprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took a second goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness.... The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barren region; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev. 16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinful people, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longing for God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last, when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it was revealed that he would “save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, John the Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereas both Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to be the obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation (Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13; Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also the Suffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45; cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrath of God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. With his justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify all who are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). What neither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, Jesus Christ did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
After his resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers began proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus did and calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins” (Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness, they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned against them (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believers continue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal. 5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23). The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the new heaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse (Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
As even this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesis to Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’s plot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative; it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved in order for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.
The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
Direct Matches
“Author of life” is a title applied to Jesus byPeter in Acts 3:15 (KJV: “Prince of life”), where he usesit ironically to highlight that people had killed the one who was thesource of life. Elsewhere, the Greek word behind “author”(archēgos) is translated as “prince,” “leader,”“captain,” or “pioneer” (Acts 5:31; Heb.2:10; 12:2).
A person of uncertain or questionable parentage (usedfiguratively in Zech. 9:6 to speak of foreigners as “a mongrelpeople” [NIV, NRSV]). Bastards were excluded from the assemblyof the Lord, even to the tenth generation of descendants (Deut. 23:2KJV, RSV). They were therefore marginalized and often considered tobe under divine condemnation (1 En. 10:9). The unusualcircumstances behind Jesus’ birth perhaps made him vulnerableto this accusation (Mark 6:3; John 8:41), which opponents ofChristianity made later (Origen, Cels. 1.28, 32; Gos. Thom. 105). Theauthor of Hebrews appropriates the concept to explain why Goddisciplines his legitimate children (Heb. 12:8).
Chastening sometimes refers to the discipline of a parent toa child. Parents are to chasten their children (Deut. 21:18), “forin that there is hope” (Prov. 19:18). However, the mostfrequent and significant biblical references are to God’sdiscipline of his own spiritual children. In Heb. 12 the authorencourages his readers not to “grow weary and lose heart”(v. 3), because “the Lord disciplines the one he loves”(v. 6); rather, this discipline should be a reminder that God istreating them as children (v. 7). Furthermore, if people respecttheir human fathers for administering discipline, “How muchmore should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live!”(v. 9). Certainly, “No discipline seems pleasant at thetime, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest ofrighteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it”(v. 11). God’s lesson is that “those whom I love Irebuke and discipline” (Rev. 3:19), and that we can trust thatGod knows what he is doing when allowing difficulties in our lives.
Chastening sometimes refers to the discipline of a parent toa child. Parents are to chasten their children (Deut. 21:18), “forin that there is hope” (Prov. 19:18). However, the mostfrequent and significant biblical references are to God’sdiscipline of his own spiritual children. In Heb. 12 the authorencourages his readers not to “grow weary and lose heart”(v. 3), because “the Lord disciplines the one he loves”(v. 6); rather, this discipline should be a reminder that God istreating them as children (v. 7). Furthermore, if people respecttheir human fathers for administering discipline, “How muchmore should we submit to the Father of our spirits and live!”(v. 9). Certainly, “No discipline seems pleasant at thetime, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest ofrighteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it”(v. 11). God’s lesson is that “those whom I love Irebuke and discipline” (Rev. 3:19), and that we can trust thatGod knows what he is doing when allowing difficulties in our lives.
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic cocktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
In the Bible, “discipline” can refer, positively,to training that instills wisdom in an individual (sometimestranslated “instruction”) and, negatively, to punishmentor correction of groups or individuals (sometimes translated“chastisement”). Discipline comes from God or fromhumans, especially from parents to their children. Biblicalreferences to discipline in the Bible occur largely in severalclusters, especially in Lev. 26:14–46; Deuteronomy (4:36; 8:5;11:2; 21:18; 22:18); Job (4:3; 5:17; 20:3; 33:16; 36:10); Psalms(throughout); Proverbs (throughout); Jeremiah (2:19; 5:3; 6:8; 7:28;10:8, 24; 17:23; 30:11, 14; 31:18; 32:33; 35:13; 46:28); and in theNT, in Heb. 12:5–11. Elsewhere, the language of disciplineoccurs to a limited extent in Isa. 8:11; 26:16; 28:22, 26; Ezek.5:15; Hos. 5:2; 7:15; 10:10; Zeph. 3:2, 7; and in the NT, in 1Cor.11:32; Eph. 6:4; 2Tim. 2:16; Rev. 3:19. Most of the OT passagescited above can be described as pertaining to the themes of wisdom(citations of Proverbs and Job) and covenant (citations ofDeuteronomy, Jeremiah, Hosea).
Divinediscipline.OTwisdom and poetry affirm that it is a blessing to be disciplined byGod, even in the negative sense of chastisement (e.g., Job 5:17; Ps.94:12; Prov. 3:11). This surprising attitude is no doubt due to theclose connection between God’s chastening of humans and hiscovenant relationship with them. Indeed, the prophetic threat ofdivine discipline often comes in response to the covenantunfaithfulness of God’s people, and such discipline is intendedto correct human sin so that the covenant relationship can ultimatelybe restored (cf. Lev. 16:18–28 with the final resolution of thesituation in Lev. 26:40–45, whereby chastisement effectsrepentance and reconciliation). The author of Hebrews quotes Prov.3:11–12, reminding his readers that “the Lord disciplinesthe one he loves” (12:6). As Jeremiah mocks the silliness ofworshiping vain idols that are no more than “a scarecrow in acucumber field” (Jer. 10:5), he points out that unlike theliving God of Israel, idols lack the power to administer disciplineor instruction (10:8).
Inaddition to this positive view of divine discipline, there is aprominent but complementary strand of thought that involves imploringthe Lord for relief from deserved divine discipline: “Lord, donot rebuke me in your anger or discipline me in your wrath”(Pss. 6:1; 38:1). Here is a recognition that while God’sdiscipline proceeds from his love, it is not a thing to be consideredlightly or embraced flippantly.
Humanparental discipline. Giventhe importance of discipline in the education of children, it is notsurprising that the theme is well developed in wisdom literature(Proverbs and Job), where issues of parenting are prominent. Theopening words of the book of Proverbs assert the value of theproverbs “to teach people wisdom and discipline,” amongother things (1:2 NLT). Discipline is paired with wisdom in anotherof the book’s best-known passages: “Fear of the Lord isthe foundation of true knowledge, but fools despise wisdom anddiscipline” (1:7 NLT; see also 12:1; 23:23). In addition todivine discipline (see above), Proverbs speaks of the disciplineadministered by parents, warning that “a fool spurns a parent’sdiscipline” (15:5), admonishing children to heed “afather’s instruction” (4:1), and urging parents,“Discipline your children, for in that there is hope; do not bea willing party to their death” (19:18). Discipline cansometimes take the form of physical punishment, as in 23:13: “Donot withhold discipline from a child; if you punish them with therod, they will not die” (see also 13:24; 22:15). In Proverbsdiscipline is construed both positively, as when it is paired withwisdom or knowledge (23:12), and negatively, as in 15:10: “Sterndiscipline awaits anyone who leaves the path.”
Proverbsoften equates listening to discipline with life, and spurningdiscipline with death. In the law of Deut. 21:18–21, thisequation is more than a figure of speech: the son who rejectsdiscipline from his parents is to be stoned to death by the elders ofhis town. The congruity between divine and human parental disciplineis well illustrated in Deut. 8:5: “Know then in your heart thatas a man disciplines his son, so the Lord your God disciplines you.”Similarly, the author of Hebrews teaches, “Endure hardship asdiscipline; God is treating you as his children. For what childrenare not disciplined by their father?” (12:7). And the writer ofEphesians urges fathers, “Do not provoke your children toanger, but bring them up in the discipline [paideia] and instructionof the Lord” (6:4 NRSV).
To discipline the mind or to exert the body with rigorousphysical activity. In the Greco-Roman world, the typical personworked from sunrise to noon, after which many would go to the localbathhouse to exercise in the palaestra. (Greek students spent half oftheir education engaged in sports.) Activities included wrestling,boxing, and running (see 1Cor. 9:24–26; Gal. 5:7). The NTuses the concept metaphorically for training in the Christian way(1Tim. 4:7–8; Heb. 5:14; 12:11; cf. 2Pet. 2:14) butalso finds value in disciplining the body to curb the insatiabilityof passion (1Cor. 7:9; 9:27).
The empowering of another in belief or course of action(1Thess. 2:3; 1Tim. 4:13; Heb. 12:5). The conceptoverlaps semantically with encouragement, the lifting of another’sspirit (Acts 9:31; Phil. 2:1; 2Cor. 1:4–7) and appeal(2Cor. 8:4). Jews congregated regularly in synagogues to hear areading from the Law and the Prophets, which then was applied totheir immediate lives by a competent teacher as “a word ofexhortation” or sermon (Acts 13:15; see Luke 4:16–21).Preaching weekly from an authoritative text for community formationappears to be a uniquely Jewish phenomenon in the Greco-Roman world.This practice continues in the church. The author of Hebrewsdescribes his text as a “word of exhortation” (13:22).The Holy Spirit illumined the fuller sense of Scripture as a witnessto Jesus Christ and also communicated directly to believers throughprophetic utterances (Rom. 12:6; 1Cor. 14:3).
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar ofIsrael’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22;2Sam. 21:9–10). Life was dependent on the harvest. As aresult, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help theIsraelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and everyfiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10;Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, evenduring the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were tobe left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9;23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the sourceof the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10).Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa.9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5;20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa.62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool(1Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer.8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for theharvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
Theharvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talkabout the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is calledthe firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses theidea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future(Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy forthose needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for theend times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson aboutunfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainderof the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth andsalvation (Rom. 1:13; 1Cor. 9:10–11; 2Cor. 9:10;Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit forassociation with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4).God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while“Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’sSpirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49),as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
Withreference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like hisuniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory(Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is,his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’sdwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy”functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly(11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels whosurround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
Acorollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy(Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps.96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While“holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,”this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is anassociated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied topeople and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly orimplicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never“from” something.
Thesymbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, thetabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3),and everything associated with them, are holy and the means wherebyGod’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God.For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these toomust be holy (Lev. 11:44–45; Heb. 12:14).
TheOT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean andclean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting atransition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People,places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration orsanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence(Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
Holinessmay be an attribute of places marked by God’s presence (Exod.3:5; Ps. 43:3). Likewise, particular times, especially the Sabbathday (Exod. 20:8), are declared holy.
God’sfaithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9).In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, andof particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10),prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7)are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tensionbetween the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holinessof its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended toact as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
Theprophet Zechariah envisions a time when the distinctions between holyand common will be meaningless (Zech. 14:20–21). While vestigesof the symbolic language of holiness remain in the NT (e.g., the“holy city” in Matt. 27:53), after the death andresurrection of Christ the NT no longer operates with the symbolicholiness of the OT. Rather, this language is appropriated to explainwhat true holiness entails in the lives of God’s people (Rom.12:1; Eph. 2:21). All Christians are holy (“saints” [Gk.hagioi] means “holy ones” [e.g., Rom. 1:7]), including insome sense the members of a believer’s family (1Cor.7:14). The holiness of God’s people is both definitive, byvirtue of the saving work of Christ (Heb. 13:12), and progressive, byeliciting, and empowering through his Holy Spirit, holy and righteousliving (Rom. 6:19; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Both divine initiativeand human activity with regard to holiness may be seen in texts suchas Lev. 20:8; Heb. 10:14. The objective of Christian discipline isthat we might share God’s holiness (Heb. 12:10).
Hebrewsuses the word archēgos in highlighting Jesus as the “pioneer”of salvation and faith (Heb. 2:10; 12:2; NASB: “author”).The same Greek term is used in the phrase “author of life”in Acts 3:15 and is translated as “Prince”in Acts 5:31. See also Author, Author of Life.
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Hebrews 12:1-13
is mentioned in the definition.
Affliction is a condition of physical, mental, or spiritualdistress, or the cause of suffering. Afflictions may be a variety oftemporal, physical sufferings, such as infertility (Gen. 25:32;1 Sam. 1:11), injustice and toil (Gen. 31:42), slavery (Exod.1:12; 3:7, 17; 4:31; Deut. 26:6–7; Neh. 9:9), militaryoppression (Judg. 2:18; 10:18), loss (Ruth 1:21), displacement andmocking (2 Sam. 16:12), disease and disorders (Mark 3:10; 5:29,34; Luke 7:21; John 5:4; Acts 28:8), and famine (Acts 7:11).Affliction may be mental or spiritual, arising from the prospects oreffects of physical afflictions, feeling the futility of life(Eccles. 1:13), or concern for others in their afflictions (Isa.63:9; 2 Cor. 2:4).
Thereare several different causes and reasons for affliction, but there isno simple formula for determining the cause of one’safflictions, as Job reminds us. Clearly, Job is blameless (Job 1:1,8; 2:3), but his friends carry on wrongly in their assumptions thathis sins are to blame. The agents of affliction include God (2 Kings17:20; Nah. 1:12), Satan and/or demons (Job 1:12; Acts 5:16), otherpeople (Judg. 10:8; 2 Thess. 1:6), oneself (1 Kings 18:28),or the general condition of life (Job 5:7).
Thereasons for affliction also vary. One reason might be called “noreason,” in that “man is born to trouble as surely assparks fly upward” (Job 5:7). Troubles, afflictions, and sorrowjust happen. In retrospect, this is a condition of living in a cursedworld (Gen. 3). But this is a general consequence for the whole humanrace, not a punishment directed at a specific sin. The widespreadafflictions of the curse appear random. In various forms they preventus from turning to easy living as a refuge from broken relationshipsand therefore force us to look elsewhere. The intent is that we lookto God (see Hos. 5:15). Multiple specific reasons, however, may liebehind any particular affliction. They include punishment for sin(Deut. 29:22), often to induce repentance leading to restoration(Hos. 5:15; Zech. 10:9; 1 Cor. 11:30). Affliction may be dealtout by people as they sin against others (1 Sam. 1:7; 2 Sam.16:12; 2 Thess. 1:6). One’s own choices may have naturalconsequences (Prov. 11:24; 13:20; 19:9, 15; 22:3), or consequencescome due to a lack of leadership (Zech. 10:2). Some result from beingassociated with those going through afflictions (Num. 14:28–35;1 Kings 2:26), suffering afflictions due to following Christ(Matt. 13:21; John 15:18–20; Acts 20:23), or feeling empathyfor the afflicted (2 Cor. 2:4). Other afflictions are given astraining, prevention, or refining (Isa. 48:10; Rom. 5:3–5;2 Cor. 12:7; Heb. 12:5–13). Suffering affliction may alsobe substitutionary, on behalf of others (Isa. 53:4–7; and thesubstitutionary atonement of Christ generally).
Inresponse to others’ afflictions, we are called to sympathy,compassion, comfort, and justice. Appropriate responses to our ownafflictions range from patient endurance for the cause of Christ(James 5:11) to lamenting (the psalms and Christ’s example,Matt. 27:46).
“Author of life” is a title applied to Jesus byPeter in Acts 3:15 (KJV: “Prince of life”), where he usesit ironically to highlight that people had killed the one who was thesource of life. Elsewhere, the Greek word behind “author”(archēgos) is translated as “prince,” “leader,”“captain,” or “pioneer” (Acts 5:31; Heb.2:10; 12:2).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic cocktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic cocktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic cocktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
The Bible contains two kinds of statements related to properconduct. Some of them describe the nature of God, the sort of worldhe created, and what he has done for particular groups of people. Italso contains statements telling us what we ought to do, both ascreatures of this God and, in some instances, as the uniquebeneficiaries of his redemptive activity. Consequently, the Biblesets forth a moral viewpoint or ethical system, supported by reasonsthat justify its content and urgency. The writers of Scripture werenot moral philosophers, outlining their position in technical detail;nevertheless, they intended to reveal what pleases our God andSavior, so that the saints are “thoroughly equipped for everygood work” (2Tim. 3:16–17). The Bible, therefore,is the foundational resource for moral discernment, the definitivestatement of what Christians must do and who they must become.
TheSources of Moral Knowledge
Scriptureidentifies two sources of moral knowledge. First, all human beingshave the law of God “written on their hearts” (Rom.2:15). We have a conscience, a God-given awareness of right and wrongthat acquits or convicts us, depending on how we respond to it. Thefall of humankind has damaged this source of knowledge, and ourconsciences can become “seared” through chronicdisobedience and doctrinal treason (1Tim. 4:2). We do not,therefore, see infallibly what our duties are. Nevertheless, theapostle Paul argues that every human being knows enough of God’slaw—and indeed, enough about his nature as God—toeliminate every defense on judgment day (Rom. 1:18–20). No onewill be able to say to God in that hour, “I had no idea who youwere and no hint of what you expected ofme.”
Second,as noted above, we have the Bible as a source of knowledge, this onebeing fully adequate and sufficiently clear to guide our choices.Knowing Scripture is necessary for Christian ethics because it offersa high-definition view of what conscience can (even in its bestmoments) scarcely grasp. The Bible proclaims not only what the churchmust do, often in straightforward, concrete terms, but also (atleast, in many cases) why God’s will has its particular contentand why obedience is an emergency, not a safely deferred, improvementproject. The Bible does not, and really could not, answer everyethical question put to it in unambiguous detail. New technologiesand cultural shifts have created dilemmas unimagined in the firstcentury or any previous age. But the church can be assured that afaithful reading of and response to Scripture will, by the grace ofGod, please him even today, whatever our particular circumstances.
TheLogic of Biblical Morality
Themoral teaching of Scripture has an identifiable structure consistingof duties and final objectives. When we obey God’scommandments, which is our duty, his ultimate goals or objectives increating us are realized. In this sense, biblical morality iscomplete and informative compared to systems derived from otherworldviews. It explains what life is all about, but also what we mustdo from day to day. This entire picture emerges from Scripturebecause its theological statements are always practically applied andnever presented with merely theoretical interest.
Theobjectives of biblical morality.The objectives of an ethical system are its final ends or purposes:the results that obedience is supposed to yield. In the Bible, twoobjectives have this ultimate significance, one being the anticipatedside effect of the other.
Toglorify God.The biblical writers proclaim the spectacular goodness of God. He ismaximally excellent in all ways as the Creator, including wisdom,power, justice, and love. He is the holy God who, almost in spite ofthat fact, loves us and gave his Son, Jesus, to suffer for our sinsso that we might live eternally in his presence. In these respects,God stands alone, not simply in experience but necessarily so. No oneever has, and no one ever could, be like him. Thus, the finalobjective of all human striving must be to glorify this God—toknow him, to praise him, and to value what he values. Our actionsmust testify to his excellence, honoring him and encouraging othersto do likewise. Obedience treasures what God treasures, shuns what heabhors, and allows his power to work in our lives, causing us to livein unity with our fellow believers. These patterns of behavior definewhat it means to glorify God.
Tobe happy in God’s presence.The second goal or objective of biblical morality is to be happy inways that are proper for God’s creatures. In this sense, theChristian system of ethics differs from moral theories that eitherreject happiness altogether, viewing it as an unworthy goal, or elsereduce it to a merely practical necessity—that is, we sinnersneed our incentives. On the contrary, the God of Scripture plainlydesires our happiness and often presents himself as the final sourceof it when calling his people to obedience. This tendency followsfrom the perfect goodness of God and his freedom in creating allthings. He did not have to make anything else, but he did so; andbecause he has no needs, his purposes must have been selfless ratherthan selfish. He created in order to give rather than to get, and thevery best he desires for any of us is the happiness that results fromour glorifying him together, as one body in Christ. Likewise, then,biblical morality differs from ethical systems that make humanhappiness an intrinsic good, so that any means to it is acceptable.God wants us to be happy, but our happiness must come from bringinghim glory. All other forms of happiness are deceptive and transitory.The heavenly scenes of the book of Revelation show the church whathappiness God has in store for them if they overcome the trials ofthis life (so, e.g., Rev. 4–5; 7; 21–22; cf. 1Cor.2:9; Heb. 12:2).
Themeans of biblical morality.Not surprisingly, the Bible also shows us how to glorify God—howto reflect his majesty in our daily lives, how to praise him, and howto value what he values. Within the whole of this teaching, severalmajor themes can be discerned, five leading examples of which appearbelow, allowing some overlap between them.
Trustingin God’s promises.Biblical faith is the confidence that God will do for us what he haspromised. We believe that he can and will meet our needs and notallow us to endure pointless suffering. When we trust him, weproclaim his greatness and acknowledge our own dependence upon him.Both Rom. 4 and Heb. 11 make this point in ways that reflect upon OThistory with an application to the present Christian life. The gospelis a promise concerning the death, burial, and resurrection ofChrist; and faith assures us that God will reckon these events to ouraccount. Conversely, we often violate God’s commandmentsbecause we doubt that he will give us what we need when we need it(so, e.g., Abraham’s capitulation to Sarah in Gen. 16, with itscorresponding negative results).
Keepingholiness and impurity separated.God is the all-powerful, all-knowing, morally perfect Creator of theuniverse. All things depend on him for their existence, and he isextreme both in his commitment to justice and his desire to love.Consequently, God’s creatures encounter him as “holy,”as the ominously transcendent or dangerously perfect deity. He standsalone, apart from everything else, and life in his presence cannotentail business as usual. The shorthand way of expressing this dutyis to say that we ourselves must be holy, as he is holy, by shunningall forms of impurity. In this way, for example, the ancientIsraelites prepared themselves to enter Yahweh’s presence andgave him public honor (Lev. 11:44; 19:2; Ps. 24:3–4; Isa.6:1–5; cf. 1Pet. 1:15–16).
InScripture, the distinction between the pure and the impure, or theholy and the unholy, is sometimes intrinsic and sometimespedagogical. Breaking any of the Ten Commandments makes oneintrinsically impure. It is always evil, everywhere, for anyone tohave other gods, make idols, and disrespect parents. It is evil tolie, steal, and murder. Even breaking the Sabbath is wrong if itexpresses unbelief in God’s ability and willingness to provide.But some lines between purity and impurity—or, in other cases,just between the sacred and the common—seem to be drawn by Godfor instructional purposes only. They do not separate good from evilas such, but they compel the Israelites to “practice Yahweh’spresence” by honoring boundaries imposed on domestic life. Itis not evil to eat pork, but doing that is forbidden in the OT andpermitted in the NT (Lev. 11:7; Mark 7:19). It is not evil to wearblended cloth, but doing that is forbidden in the OT and passed overin the NT (Lev. 19:19). Therefore, as suggested, Levitical rules ofthis kind must have had some instrumental purpose, serving anobjective beyond themselves. They impose the holiness of Yahweh oneveryday choices, as the Holy Spirit now presses the claims of Godupon his church. This separation of impurity and holiness is, in anycase, a constant theme in the OT, and it carries over into the NT aswell, where it informs the question “What must I do to besaved?” (cf. Acts 16:30).
ImitatingGod/Christ.The biblical writers also construe the moral life as an imitation ofGod and/or Christ, especially when the virtues of mercy, humility,and endurance are at stake. In the OT, Yahweh’s behavior towardpeople becomes the standard for Israel’s own conduct. So, forexample, he says, “But let the one who boasts boast about this:that they have the understanding to know me, that I am the Lord, whoexercises kindness, justice and righteousness on earth, for in theseI delight” (Jer. 9:24). In the NT, similar inferences appear,as when Jesus says, “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they willbe called children of God” (Matt. 5:9), the son being one whofollows in his father’s footsteps. We must love our enemies, sothat we may be “children of (our) Father in heaven”(Matt. 5:44–45). We must “be perfect,” as he isperfect (Matt. 5:48). Jesus commands his disciples to wash oneanother’s feet, after his own example (John 13:14–15).They must love each other as he has loved them (John 15:12). The newcommandment to love one another, following the Lord’s example,puts on display his character and their own relationship to him(13:34–35). Jesus prays that his disciples will be “one,”just as the Father and the Son are one (17:22). Paul’s hymn inPhil. 2:5–11 serves this purpose: we must imitate the humilitythat surrendered all, even to the point of crucifixion. Hebrews12:1–2 holds up Christ as one who “for the joy set beforehim endured the cross, scorning its shame,” resulting in hisglory.
Livingout our unique identity.Scripture defines the moral ideal for all persons, whoever they are,because its perspective is not relativistic. Murder, idolatry, andlying are not wrong for some and right for others. Nevertheless, mostof the Bible’s moral teaching has a target audience, so that itoften contains inferences to this effect: “You shall do X (ordoing X is urgent for you), either (a)because you belong to Godin a special way or (b)because he has done this special thingfor you.” In the OT, the target audience is Israel; in the NT,the corresponding group is the church. In both Testaments, however,the same ethical particularism operates, thereby giving the moralexhortations of Paul and Peter, to cite two clear examples, arecognizably “Jewish” structure or theme.
Thelinkage between gift and task, or supernatural identity and behavior,is the basic structure of the Sinai covenant itself. The text movesfrom prologue, “I am the Lord your God, who brought you out ofEgypt,” to moral exhortation, beginning with, “You shallhave no other gods before me” (Exod. 20:1–3; Deut.5:6–7). Echoes of this prologue also occur frequently in the OTas motive clauses. God will say, in effect, “You shall do X,for I am the Lord your God,” or “You shall not do Y, forI am the Lord your God who brought you out of Egypt.” In somecases, the motive clause identifies the people themselves, as in,“For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord yourGod has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth tobe his people, his treasured possession” (Deut. 7:6). Or again,“You are the children of the Lord your God. Do not cutyourselves or shave the front of your heads for the dead, for you area people holy to the Lord your God. Out of all the peoples on theface of the earth, the Lord has chosen you to be his treasuredpossession” (Deut. 14:1–2). In some cases, God refers tothe people’s unique condition to shame them, as in, “WhenIsrael was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son.But the more they were called, the more they went away from me”(Hos. 11:1–2). Loyalty was especially urgent, given Israel’sexperience of God’s particular love.
Inthe NT, the mandate to live out one’s special identity appearsoften, especially (though not exclusively) in the writings of Pauland Peter. In Rom. 6 those who have been emancipated from sin mustresist its waning influence. In Rom. 8 those who are under the HolySpirit’s new management must walk in accordance with him andshun the mind-set of the flesh. The Corinthians have become anunleavened batch of dough; therefore, they must “Get rid of theold yeast,” which tolerates extraordinary sin (1Cor. 5).The members of Christ’s one body are to function as one newhumanity (1Cor. 12:12–31). If the Galatians live by theSpirit, they must also walk by the Spirit (Gal. 5:25). Peter tellshis readers to love one another because they have been “bornagain” of “imperishable seed” (1Pet.1:22–23). They are a “chosen race,” a “royalpriesthood,” and a “holy nation”; therefore, theymust proclaim his excellence and abstain from carnal passions (1Pet.2:9–11). Jesus himself says that because he is the vine and weare the branches, we must abide in him (John 15:1–11). In allthese cases, the target audience has a special relationship to Godthat imposes on them corresponding duties or priorities, so that theyreflect his holiness, value what he values, and attain the goals thathe has set before them.
Livingin unity with one another.The first sin separated God from humankind and damaged all otherrelationships (Gen. 3). From that point onward, Adam and Eve wouldlive in tension (Gen. 3:16), and their son Cain kills his brotherAbel (Gen. 4:8). Disunity results from sin; and in some cases, Godscatters sinners as judgment on their wickedness (e.g., Gen. 11:1–9;1Kings 11). It is “good and pleasant” when “God’speople live together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), and obedience to OTteaching would make them do so. Nevertheless, sin stands betweenYahweh and his people, and it stands between one Israelite andanother. Disunity, in all these dimensions, is the unfinishedbusiness of the OT story.
TheNT presents unity as both an effect and a duty (or a gift and a task)of the new life in Christ. We are one in Christ, and we must live inunity of fellowship with one another. Jews and Gentiles—indeed,people from all walks of life—become one body, a new kind ofpeople, defined by relationships that are “thicker than blood,”so to speak, as blood is thicker than water. Paul, as the apostle tothe Gentiles, enforces this theme throughout his letters, so that hisexhortations concentrate on the church, in the first instance, ratherthan the individual. Christians must display the social virtues oflove and humility, resisting selfish ambition and pride, both ofwhich separate believer from believer and each from the head of thechurch, who is Christ. Romans and Ephesians make a positive case forChristian unity among Jews and Gentiles, while Philippians (perhaps,in a broader sense, also Galatians and Colossians) confronts adivisive tendency. The essential vice denounced in 1–2Corinthiansis arrogant grandstanding, which rejects Paul’s “messageof the cross” (1Cor. 1:18) and subdivides the church intocults of personality. Worldly forces are centrifugal, leading us awayfrom one another and into competition for influence, wealth, andpublic honor. In contrast, the Holy Spirit’s force iscentripetal, creating unity where no one would expect it and leadingeach person to self-sacrifice so that others in the body of Christmight be built up in him.
The Bible contains little information about nonathleticgames, but archaeology has revealed numerous types of board games andchildren’s games in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Canaan. Althoughactual game pieces and dice have been found, information concerningthe rules of the games is lacking. The Hebrew Bible does not describeanything like Greek or Roman games, but the NT makes numerousreferences to athletic competitions.
Greekgames originated with funeral rites that commemorated heroes. TheIliad provides the earliest reference to Greek games as it describesgames sponsored by Achilles in memory of Patroklos. The games becamean integral part of Greek culture, honored the Greek gods, and werean essential element in a Greek education. Games were held athundreds of local festivals across the Mediterranean, but the fourPanhellenic games were the most prestigious. The games wereaccompanied by a sacred truce and held in sanctuaries. The Greekstrained and competed in the nude. Initially, running was the onlycompetition, but by the second century AD Pausanius enumeratedtwenty-four contests, all of which were individual competitions. Thespecific contests varied from place to place, but the main eventsincluded running, chariot racing, long jumping, javelin throwing,discus throwing (2Macc. 4:14), wrestling, boxing (1Cor.9:26), and the pankration, which was a form of all-out fighting. Someof the games included musical competitions. The prize, a wreath, wasawarded only for first prize, and the winner of all four Panhellenicgames was the periodonikēs. The victor returned home to a hero’swelcome, fame, and gifts. Some examples of cheating and bribery havesurvived, and those caught were fined.
TheOlympic games, established in 776 BC, were the oldest and mostprestigious of the Panhellenic games. They were held every four yearsin the sanctuary complex of Zeus in Olympia. The stadium wastypically about 600 feet long, but Olympia’s was the longest,at about 630 feet, because of the tradition that Heracles had laidout the course. The remaining Panhellenic games were establishedabout two hundred years later, in the sixth century BC. The Pythiangames were held at the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. The Nemeangames were held at the sanctuary of Zeus in Argos. The Isthmian gameswere administered by Corinth at the sanctuary of Poseidon.
TheRomans preferred gladiatorial games and wild-game hunts over Greekgames. Nevertheless, Romans were allowed to participate in thePanhellenic games. In fact, the emperors Tiberius and Neroparticipated. The Roman games were wildly popular with the people. Bythe second century AD, 135 days of games were held each year in Rome.The Circus Maximus was the largest venue, allowing up to two hundredthousand spectators to attend the chariot races. The Colosseum, thelargest amphitheater in the Roman Empire, was built in AD 80,financed with spoils taken during the First Jewish Revolt. It heldfifty thousand spectators for the gladiatorial games. Prisoners ofwar, slaves, and criminals condemned to die were forced to fight asgladiators and face wild beasts. Gladiatorial games were heldthroughout the empire. Herod the Great threw condemned criminals towild animals in his amphitheater near Jerusalem in order to delightthe spectators (Josephus, Ant. 15.273–75). Paul refers tofighting wild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32), though this islikely a metaphor for his spiritual opponents. Roman-style gameshonored Rome and became a symbol of loyalty to the Roman Empire.
Jewishviews toward Greek and Roman games varied. Some Jews, especiallythose in the Diaspora, embraced the games as spectators andparticipants (2Macc. 4:9–14). During the reign ofAntiochusIV, some Jewish youth participated in the gymnasium inJerusalem. They even underwent surgery to cover the signs of theircircumcision (1Macc. 1:12–15). Herod the Great builtamphitheaters, stadiums, and hippodromes throughout his kingdom, andPhilo of Alexandria frequented the games. However, the authors of 1–2Maccabees criticize the priests for neglecting their duties byattending the games. Furthermore, the religious association of thegames led many conservative Jews to oppose the games.
BecausePaul and his audiences were familiar with Greek and Roman games, hedrew upon them as analogies to the Christian life. During Paul’seighteen-month ministry in Corinth, the nearby Isthmian games wereplayed. Through references to training and competition, Pauldemonstrates the need to be disciplined, focused, determined as anathlete (1Cor. 9:24–27; 2Tim. 4:7; cf. Heb. 12:1).In contrast to the wreath won by Greek athletes, Christians strivefor an eternal prize and a crown of righteousness (1Cor. 9:27;Phil. 3:14; 2Tim. 4:7–8).
In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.
Head
Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).
Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).
Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).
Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).
Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).
Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).
Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.
Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).
Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).
Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).
Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.
Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).
Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).
Body
Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).
Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).
Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).
Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).
Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).
Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).
Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.
Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cushite captives (Isa. 20:4).
Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).
Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).
Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).
Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).
Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).
Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).
Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).
Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).
Clothesand Shoes
Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).
Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).
Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).
Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).
PropheticGestures
Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).
Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.
The Letter to the Hebrews and the Letter to the Romans constitute the two great pillars of theology in the NT. Hebrews brings a high Christology and increases Christian understanding of Christ’s role as priest and pioneer of faith. From this book, deductions can be made regarding the early church’s understanding of OT interpretation and its view of typology.
Hebrews ends like a letter, but it does not begin like one. In particular, it lacks the names of the writer and the recipients. From the content, though, it is evident that this work is meant for a certain audience, familiar with the author. The author shows a loving pastoral concern for his readers, teaching them, exhorting them, and rebuking them when necessary. He gives them models of faith to encourage them and instructs them to encourage one another. The author describes the work as “my word of exhortation” (13:22). The book is often identified as a sermon.
Author
The letter is, strictly speaking, anonymous. No author is mentioned, and few clues as to his identity exist. He is known by his readers (13:19) and has a pastor’s heart for them (6:9). He and his audience are second-generation Christians; that is, they did not hear Jesus during his ministry but rather are dependent upon those who did (2:3). He is a companion of Timothy (13:23) and thus possibly in the circle of Paul. The letter shows that he has great organizational and rhetorical skills; he is intelligent and well educated; his writing indicates that he is likely from a Greek-speaking culture and is a converted Hellenistic Jew familiar with the Greek version of the OT. And he is a creative theologian with perspectives found nowhere else in theNT.
Early church tradition offers no name for the author. The letter’s later attribution to the apostle Paul probably granted it the authority necessary for canonicity, though problems with that view were readily apparent. The Greek is unlike Paul’s, and the rhetoric and theology are much different as well. The themes present in Hebrews are of only tangential interest to Paul. All the Pauline Epistles bear his self-identification, because he felt that his status as an apostle added authority to his words. And Paul did not consider himself to be a second-generation Christian, since he had seen the Lord himself (Gal. 1:12). Although the Catholic and Eastern Churches continue to ascribe the work to Paul, the Protestant Church has almost completely abandoned that idea.
In the absence of a known author, almost every name in the NT has been suggested, including Apollos, Barnabas, Luke, and Silas. While each name has merits and problems, too little is known to prove or disprove any prospective author. Yet, even without Pauline or other known authorship, the book maintains its authority.
Audience
The original readers almost certainly were a house church, part of a network of churches in an urban setting, likely either Jerusalem or Rome, with Rome being slightly preferred. The recipients were a specific group rather than the church at large as in the General Epistles (James, 1–2Peter, 1–3John, Jude); the author knew their circumstances (Heb. 10:32; 12:4; 13:17, 24). They were Jewish Christians who, possibly because of persecution, were in danger of drifting back into the Judaism they had left (see 10:32–39). The letter was written probably in the late 60s, as evidenced by the fact that there is no mention of the temple’s destruction, which occurred in AD 70. Given the reasoning of the author, it is quite hard to imagine that he would not mention this event were he writing after that date.
Themes
Hebrews presents two main themes. The first is faith and perseverance, especially in the face of persecution. Jesus is the pioneer of salvation through suffering (2:10) and can help those being tempted (2:18); he has been faithful to the one who appointed him (3:2) as the Son over God’s house (3:6), which is Christians who hold firmly to their confidence and hope (3:6). Christians share in Christ, if they hold their convictions firmly to the end (3:14). This is possible because Jesus is the great high priest, having ascended into heaven (4:14). A person falling away, not holding firmly, cannot be brought back again to repentance (6:4–6). Jesus has sacrificed himself once for all (7:27). Christians must hold unswervingly to the hope they profess, for the one who promised is faithful (10:23). Those who do will be richly rewarded (10:35–36).
Role models of faith are portrayed in chapter 11, the so-called Faith Chapter. The author presents Abel, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and other OT figures as examples of living by faith. These serve as a “cloud of witnesses,” demanding “perseverance [in] the race marked out” for Christians (12:1). Jesus is the “pioneer and perfecter” of faith, enduring the cross and shame (12:2). Christians should endure hardship as discipline (12:7), which will produce a “harvest of righteousness” (12:11).
The second theme is the superiority of Christ, presented in a series of escalating comparisons between Jesus and every aspect of Judaism. The Son is a superior revelation from God (1:1–2). He is superior to the angels (1:4–14) and even to Moses (3:2–6). The Son’s Melchizedekian priesthood is superior to the Levitical priesthood (7:1–25). The new covenant brought by the Son is superior to the Mosaic covenant (8:6–13); the Son’s sacrifice is superior to the sacrifices offered under the Mosaic law (9:1–10:18).
Theology
The author brings his unique perspective to the work of Christ—his special roles as both high priest and sacrifice. Because Jesus lives forever, he has a permanent priesthood (7:24), which is not a function of his ancestry but rather is “on the basis of the power of an indestructible life” (7:16). He meets the requirements of a priest, being “holy, blameless, pure, set apart from sinners, exalted above the heavens” (7:26). He is a “priest forever, in the order of Melchizedek” (7:17, quoting Ps. 110:4). Melchizedek is a once-mentioned figure from Gen. 14:18. He was the king of Salem, a “priest of God Most High.” Abraham, and by extension Levi, paid him a tithe and received a blessing from him. Therefore, Melchizedek is superior to Levi, and his priestly order is superior to Levi’s. This priesthood, in fact, replaces the Levitical priesthood because the earlier priesthood could not produce perfection (Heb. 7:11), being “weak and useless” (7:18).
The Levitical priests had offered their sacrifices repeatedly, year after year, first for their own sins, then for those of the people. They had used the blood of bulls and goats to cleanse the tabernacle and accessories, because without the shedding of blood there can be no forgiveness of sin (9:22). There had been many priests, as death claimed each one. The priests, in all their weaknesses, had been appointed by the law. The sanctuary in which they serve is a “copy and shadow” of what is in heaven (8:5).
In contrast to the Levitical high priest, Jesus sits at “the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven” (8:1) and serves in the true tabernacle not made by human hands. He has been appointed not by the law but by the oath of God, which came after the law. He has no need to offer sacrifices day after day; his sacrifice was “once for all” (7:27), coming at the culmination of the ages to do away with sin (9:26). In fact, the repeated nature of the Levitical sacrifices serves as proof of their ineffectiveness. Had they been effective, they would have ceased. But “it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins” (10:4), even when offered in accordance with the law (10:8). The worshipers had been left with the same guilty consciences. Christ had “entered the Most Holy Place once for all by his own blood” and obtained eternal redemption for all believers (9:12), sprinkling their hearts to cleanse them from guilty consciences (10:22)
Because of this, Christ is the mediator of the new covenant, prophesied in Jer. 31:31, which is superior to the Mosaic covenant. The first covenant has been made obsolete and will soon disappear (Heb. 8:13), as the new covenant is “established on better promises” (8:6). The tabernacle had been designed to demonstrate that there was no way into the most holy place for anyone but the high priest. Now, the blood of Jesus has opened a way through the curtain, allowing believers to “draw near to God with a sincere heart and with the full assurance of faith” (10:22).
Exhortations
Hebrews consists of theology interspersed with exhortations to the readers to persevere in the face of persecution, not to drift away from their new faith. These hortatory passages also serve as warnings. Because the new covenant is superior to the old one, its violation carries proportional penalties: since every violation of the old covenant had been met with its just punishment, “how shall we escape if we ignore so great a salvation?” (2:3). Believers must encourage one another, so that no one becomes “hardened by sin’s deceitfulness” (3:13). As recipients of new access to God, Christians must hold unswervingly to the hope, because God is faithful. This new access has completely replaced the old; there is no sacrifice remaining to forgive deliberate sinning. As those rejecting the law of Moses had died without mercy, those insulting the Spirit of grace will be punished more severely (10:29). Christians should consider “him who endured such opposition” so as not to “grow weary and lose heart” (12:3).
The author rebukes his readers for being lazy: “We have much to say about this, but it is hard to make it clear to you because you no longer try to understand” (5:11); but he patiently moves on beyond elementary teaching to teaching of Christian maturity (6:1). He warns them sternly that there is no reverse gear: those who have entered the sphere of Christian faith cannot fall away and then reenter at will; apostates would be “crucifying the Son of God all over again” (6:6). But then he softens the rebuke as a pastor: “Even though we speak like this, dear friends, we are convinced of better things in your case— the things that have to do with salvation” (6:9).
The author also shows great interest in the Sabbath rest promised to Moses. Those who had disobeyed were denied the rest (3:18), but the promise of entering his rest still stands (4:1). In fact, the Sabbath rest that remains is superior, or else it would not still be offered (4:8), and Christians must make every effort to enter that rest so that no one will perish (4:11).
Outline
The Letter to the Hebrews is very organized yet difficult to outline, owing to the manner in which the author handles his transitional material. The main theological argument (the superiority of the Son) is presented as a series of overlapping and interlocked comparisons interspersed with pastoral exhortations to perseverance. The connection between sections is often a keyword used in one section and then picked up and expanded in the next.
I. Introduction (1:1–4)
II. The Son Is Superior to the Angels (1:5–14)
III. Warning: Do Not Reject the Word Spoken through God’s Son (2:1–4)
IV. Jesus Is the Perfect Pioneer of Salvation because of His Suffering (2:5–18)
V. The Son Is Superior to Moses (3:1–19)
VI. The Sabbath Rest Is Still Available and Is Superior to the OT Rest (4:1–13)
VII. The Son Is a Superior High Priest (4:14–5:10)
VIII. Rebuke: You Are Still Spiritual Children (5:11–6:3)
IX. Warning: There Is No Return to the Former Covenant (6:4–12)
X. Jesus Completes the Oath God Gave Abraham (6:13–20)
XI. Jesus Is a Priest of Melchizedek’s Order, Superior to Levi’s Priesthood (7:1–25)
XII. The Priestly Function of Jesus Is Superior to That of the OT Priest (7:26–8:6)
XIII. The New Covenant of Jesus Is Superior to the Mosaic Covenant (8:7–13)
XIV. The Tabernacle of the New Covenant Is Superior to the Old (9:1–7)
XV. The Sacrifice of Christ Is Superior to the OT Sacrifices (9:8–10:20)
XVI. Exhortation to Persevere (10:21–39)
XVII. Faith Models (11:1–40)
XVIII. Exhortation to Righteous Living (12:1–13:17)
XIX. Closing Personal Greetings (13:18–25)
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
A type of training, generally referred to in the NIV as“discipline” (Prov. 3:11–12; 15:5; Heb. 12:5, 7,10). For children, it encompasses the cultivation of the mind andmorals, which includes essential corrections, reproofs, punishment,and restraint that exhibits godly character toward Christian growth(Eph. 6:4). For adults, Scripture has a role in this “trainingin righteousness” (2Tim. 3:16). Even as earthly fathersdiscipline their children, God “disciplines the one he loves”(Heb. 12:6). Disciplinary sufferings are a demonstration of sonship(Heb. 12:5–11). Nurturing is also a type of care that can beshown to plants, akin to the proper care of children (Ps. 144:12).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
The Bible contains little information about nonathleticgames, but archaeology has revealed numerous types of board games andchildren’s games in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Canaan. Althoughactual game pieces and dice have been found, information concerningthe rules of the games is lacking. The Hebrew Bible does not describeanything like Greek or Roman games, but the NT makes numerousreferences to athletic competitions.
Greekgames originated with funeral rites that commemorated heroes. TheIliad provides the earliest reference to Greek games as it describesgames sponsored by Achilles in memory of Patroklos. The games becamean integral part of Greek culture, honored the Greek gods, and werean essential element in a Greek education. Games were held athundreds of local festivals across the Mediterranean, but the fourPanhellenic games were the most prestigious. The games wereaccompanied by a sacred truce and held in sanctuaries. The Greekstrained and competed in the nude. Initially, running was the onlycompetition, but by the second century AD Pausanius enumeratedtwenty-four contests, all of which were individual competitions. Thespecific contests varied from place to place, but the main eventsincluded running, chariot racing, long jumping, javelin throwing,discus throwing (2Macc. 4:14), wrestling, boxing (1Cor.9:26), and the pankration, which was a form of all-out fighting. Someof the games included musical competitions. The prize, a wreath, wasawarded only for first prize, and the winner of all four Panhellenicgames was the periodonikēs. The victor returned home to a hero’swelcome, fame, and gifts. Some examples of cheating and bribery havesurvived, and those caught were fined.
TheOlympic games, established in 776 BC, were the oldest and mostprestigious of the Panhellenic games. They were held every four yearsin the sanctuary complex of Zeus in Olympia. The stadium wastypically about 600 feet long, but Olympia’s was the longest,at about 630 feet, because of the tradition that Heracles had laidout the course. The remaining Panhellenic games were establishedabout two hundred years later, in the sixth century BC. The Pythiangames were held at the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. The Nemeangames were held at the sanctuary of Zeus in Argos. The Isthmian gameswere administered by Corinth at the sanctuary of Poseidon.
TheRomans preferred gladiatorial games and wild-game hunts over Greekgames. Nevertheless, Romans were allowed to participate in thePanhellenic games. In fact, the emperors Tiberius and Neroparticipated. The Roman games were wildly popular with the people. Bythe second century AD, 135 days of games were held each year in Rome.The Circus Maximus was the largest venue, allowing up to two hundredthousand spectators to attend the chariot races. The Colosseum, thelargest amphitheater in the Roman Empire, was built in AD 80,financed with spoils taken during the First Jewish Revolt. It heldfifty thousand spectators for the gladiatorial games. Prisoners ofwar, slaves, and criminals condemned to die were forced to fight asgladiators and face wild beasts. Gladiatorial games were heldthroughout the empire. Herod the Great threw condemned criminals towild animals in his amphitheater near Jerusalem in order to delightthe spectators (Josephus, Ant. 15.273–75). Paul refers tofighting wild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32), though this islikely a metaphor for his spiritual opponents. Roman-style gameshonored Rome and became a symbol of loyalty to the Roman Empire.
Jewishviews toward Greek and Roman games varied. Some Jews, especiallythose in the Diaspora, embraced the games as spectators andparticipants (2Macc. 4:9–14). During the reign ofAntiochusIV, some Jewish youth participated in the gymnasium inJerusalem. They even underwent surgery to cover the signs of theircircumcision (1Macc. 1:12–15). Herod the Great builtamphitheaters, stadiums, and hippodromes throughout his kingdom, andPhilo of Alexandria frequented the games. However, the authors of 1–2Maccabees criticize the priests for neglecting their duties byattending the games. Furthermore, the religious association of thegames led many conservative Jews to oppose the games.
BecausePaul and his audiences were familiar with Greek and Roman games, hedrew upon them as analogies to the Christian life. During Paul’seighteen-month ministry in Corinth, the nearby Isthmian games wereplayed. Through references to training and competition, Pauldemonstrates the need to be disciplined, focused, determined as anathlete (1Cor. 9:24–27; 2Tim. 4:7; cf. Heb. 12:1).In contrast to the wreath won by Greek athletes, Christians strivefor an eternal prize and a crown of righteousness (1Cor. 9:27;Phil. 3:14; 2Tim. 4:7–8).
“Author of life” is a title applied to Jesus byPeter in Acts 3:15 (KJV: “Prince of life”), where he usesit ironically to highlight that people had killed the one who was thesource of life. Elsewhere, the Greek word behind “author”(archēgos) is translated as “prince,” “leader,”“captain,” or “pioneer” (Acts 5:31; Heb.2:10; 12:2).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Although athletic competition was found across the ancientworld, sports receive little to no attention in the OT. Be it archery(1Sam. 20:20), chariotry (1Kings 9:22), slinging(1Chron. 12:2), or running (1Kings 1:5), no instanceoccurs in a demonstrably athletic context but rather refers tomilitary activity. This likely includes Jacob’s wrestling witha divine stranger (Gen. 32:24; see too Abner’s challenge toJoab’s men in 2Sam. 2:14, where a physical competitionamong some soldiers eventually breaks into combat). Athletic imageryseems to be used in Jer. 12:5, where God reasons with Jeremiah usingracing metaphors (see also the mention of a ball in Isa. 22:18, whichmay have athletic connotations).
Withthe conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great in 332 BC,Hellenistic customs began to influence the native Jewish population,including an affinity for sports. AntiochusIV Epiphanes (r.175–164 BC) introduced Jerusalem’s first gymnasium, aGreek cultural center that held many athletic events. Athletes inGreek society competed naked, and events always honored pagandeities. Because of this and the reminder of foreign occupation, manyJews despised the gymnasium. But Greco-Roman athletics still pervadedthe culture, as evidenced in the NT. Paul and the author of Hebrewsare the only NT authors to refer to sports. The best example isPaul’s use of imagery from running, boxing, and athleticdiscipline when writing to the church at Corinth, the city of thefamed Isthmian games (1Cor. 9:24–27). Paul refers torunning no less than five more times in his letters (Gal. 2:2; 5:7;Phil. 2:16; 3:12–14; 2Tim. 4:7–8). The author ofHebrews also uses running imagery in Heb. 12:1–2.
The act of yielding or consenting to the authority ofanother, voluntarily or involuntarily; personal deference,compliance, or humility toward another; to become subject to.Submission incorporates obedience, and in certain usages the termsare synonymous. However, “obedience” indicates compliancewith directions or guidance, while “submission” describesone’s subservient posture toward another. Submission within aformalized hierarchy is subordination—for example, Jesus’relationship to the Father.
Scripturepresents submission in two ways: as the translation of a number ofspecific Hebrew and Greek terms that convey an aspect of the concept,and as a general portrait of relationships—for example,patriarchs and prophets before the Lord, or demons toward Jesus.Sometimes, the presentation is negative, as in a refusal to submit.
Inthe OT, the use of the word “submission” (or itsderivatives) in the major English versions is primarily a function oftranslator preference. In fact, Gen. 16:9, the angel’sinstructions to Hagar, is the sole instance where “submit”is broadly agreed to be the best translation of the underlyingHebrew. Elsewhere, the NIV and at least one other version use formsof “submission” to interpretively translate Hebrewexpressions meaning the following: “become a slave to”(Gen. 49:15); “serve” (2Chron. 30:8); “have arelationship with” (Job 22:21); “quickly stretch outhands” (Ps. 68:31); “give over to” (Ps. 81:11); and“give the hand to” (Lam. 5:6).
Inthe NT, “submission” (along with its derivatives and,often, “to be subject to”) appears only in Luke and theepistles, and it translates forms of four different Greek roots.
1.Dogmatizōappears once: “Why ... do you submit to rules?”(Col. 2:20). It includes the aspect of obligation to something thathas been decreed.
2.Hypeikōappears once: “Obey your leaders and submit to them”(Heb. 13:17 NASB, NRSV). Here, obedience isspecifically distinguished from submission.
3.Hypotagēappears four times as “submission.” In Gal. 2:5; 1Tim.2:11; 3:4 it indicates the main understanding: subordinate posturingtoward superiors; in 2Cor. 9:13, however, it refers toobedience to a decree,in this case confession of the gospel.
4.Hypotassōis by far the most significant root. It appears almost forty times inthe NT; about half of these occurrences can be translated using aform of “submission” (or “to be subject to”).It is used to conveythe subordination of children to parents (Luke 2:51); demons to theseventy-two missionaries (Luke 10:17, 20); sinners to God’s lawor righteousness (Rom. 8:7; 10:3); people to governing authorities(Rom. 13:1, 5; Titus 3:1; 1Pet. 2:13); believers to one another(1Cor. 16:16; Eph. 5:21); wives to husbands (1Cor. 14:34;Eph. 5:22, 24; Col. 3:18; Titus 2:5; 1Pet. 3:1, 5); slaves tomasters (Titus 2:9; 1Pet. 2:18); angels, authorities, andpowers to Jesus (1Pet. 3:22); believers to God (Heb. 12:9;James 4:7); younger men to elders (1Pet. 5:5).
Afew additional uses of “submission” in some translationshave other primary meanings: “turn in for inspection”(Gal. 2:2 NASB); “reverence” (Heb. 5:7 NIV, NRSV); and“open-mindedness” (James 3:17 NIV).
Vividportraits of submission conveying the concept without invoking thespecific vocabulary include Abraham’s submission to God (Gen.12:1–4; 17:1–27; 21:4; 22:1–19); Moses at theburning bush (Exod. 3:1–4:17); Joshua toward God (Josh. 24:29);prophets toward God (1Sam. 3:10; Isa. 6:8; Hos. 1:1–3);Jesus’ submission to the Father (Matt. 26:39, 42, 44; Mark14:35–36, 39; Luke 2:49; 22:42); Paul’s submission toJesus (Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1); believers doing the will of the Father(Matt. 12:50; 21:28–32); the prodigal son toward his father(Luke 15:18, 21); believers toward Jesus (John 12:26; 14:21, 23–24;15:10); husbands and wives toward each other (1Cor. 7:3–5;11:11); believers humble before one another (Rom. 12:10; Phil.2:3–4); and the bowing of every knee to Jesus (Phil. 2:10–13).
The act of yielding or consenting to the authority ofanother, voluntarily or involuntarily; personal deference,compliance, or humility toward another; to become subject to.Submission incorporates obedience, and in certain usages the termsare synonymous. However, “obedience” indicates compliancewith directions or guidance, while “submission” describesone’s subservient posture toward another. Submission within aformalized hierarchy is subordination—for example, Jesus’relationship to the Father.
Scripturepresents submission in two ways: as the translation of a number ofspecific Hebrew and Greek terms that convey an aspect of the concept,and as a general portrait of relationships—for example,patriarchs and prophets before the Lord, or demons toward Jesus.Sometimes, the presentation is negative, as in a refusal to submit.
Inthe OT, the use of the word “submission” (or itsderivatives) in the major English versions is primarily a function oftranslator preference. In fact, Gen. 16:9, the angel’sinstructions to Hagar, is the sole instance where “submit”is broadly agreed to be the best translation of the underlyingHebrew. Elsewhere, the NIV and at least one other version use formsof “submission” to interpretively translate Hebrewexpressions meaning the following: “become a slave to”(Gen. 49:15); “serve” (2Chron. 30:8); “have arelationship with” (Job 22:21); “quickly stretch outhands” (Ps. 68:31); “give over to” (Ps. 81:11); and“give the hand to” (Lam. 5:6).
Inthe NT, “submission” (along with its derivatives and,often, “to be subject to”) appears only in Luke and theepistles, and it translates forms of four different Greek roots.
1.Dogmatizōappears once: “Why ... do you submit to rules?”(Col. 2:20). It includes the aspect of obligation to something thathas been decreed.
2.Hypeikōappears once: “Obey your leaders and submit to them”(Heb. 13:17 NASB, NRSV). Here, obedience isspecifically distinguished from submission.
3.Hypotagēappears four times as “submission.” In Gal. 2:5; 1Tim.2:11; 3:4 it indicates the main understanding: subordinate posturingtoward superiors; in 2Cor. 9:13, however, it refers toobedience to a decree,in this case confession of the gospel.
4.Hypotassōis by far the most significant root. It appears almost forty times inthe NT; about half of these occurrences can be translated using aform of “submission” (or “to be subject to”).It is used to conveythe subordination of children to parents (Luke 2:51); demons to theseventy-two missionaries (Luke 10:17, 20); sinners to God’s lawor righteousness (Rom. 8:7; 10:3); people to governing authorities(Rom. 13:1, 5; Titus 3:1; 1Pet. 2:13); believers to one another(1Cor. 16:16; Eph. 5:21); wives to husbands (1Cor. 14:34;Eph. 5:22, 24; Col. 3:18; Titus 2:5; 1Pet. 3:1, 5); slaves tomasters (Titus 2:9; 1Pet. 2:18); angels, authorities, andpowers to Jesus (1Pet. 3:22); believers to God (Heb. 12:9;James 4:7); younger men to elders (1Pet. 5:5).
Afew additional uses of “submission” in some translationshave other primary meanings: “turn in for inspection”(Gal. 2:2 NASB); “reverence” (Heb. 5:7 NIV, NRSV); and“open-mindedness” (James 3:17 NIV).
Vividportraits of submission conveying the concept without invoking thespecific vocabulary include Abraham’s submission to God (Gen.12:1–4; 17:1–27; 21:4; 22:1–19); Moses at theburning bush (Exod. 3:1–4:17); Joshua toward God (Josh. 24:29);prophets toward God (1Sam. 3:10; Isa. 6:8; Hos. 1:1–3);Jesus’ submission to the Father (Matt. 26:39, 42, 44; Mark14:35–36, 39; Luke 2:49; 22:42); Paul’s submission toJesus (Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1); believers doing the will of the Father(Matt. 12:50; 21:28–32); the prodigal son toward his father(Luke 15:18, 21); believers toward Jesus (John 12:26; 14:21, 23–24;15:10); husbands and wives toward each other (1Cor. 7:3–5;11:11); believers humble before one another (Rom. 12:10; Phil.2:3–4); and the bowing of every knee to Jesus (Phil. 2:10–13).
The Bible has much to say about suffering. While in the OTsuffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev.26:16–36; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25;cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by whichblessing comes to humanity.
TheBible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17;6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18;1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assumethat he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4,20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in thefinal chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friendsfor their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writermakes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness.Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume thatblindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesusrejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3,6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
Theprayers of suffering people are expressed in the sixteen communal andthirty-seven individual laments in the book of Psalms. Within thelaments the writers describe their problems, express feelings, makerequests, ask questions (“How long, Lord?” [13:1]; “Whyhave you forsaken me?” [22:1]), and lodge complaints againstGod (“My eyes fail, looking for my God [69:3]), enemies (“Youhave made us an object of derision to our neighbors, and our enemiesmock us” [80:6]), and even themselves (“I am a worm andnot a man” [22:6]).
TheNT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in theOT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3;26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps.22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presentedas the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation,God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8;Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the pricefor sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set freefrom sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18).(3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom.8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet.2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13),and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to sufferas his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provideshope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil.3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev.21:4).
Thereare many NT examples of suffering believers (John 15:20–21;Acts 4:3; 5:18; 7:57–60; 8:1–3; 12:1–5; 14:19;16:22–24; 18:17; 2Cor. 6:4–5, 8–10; Heb.10:32; 1Pet. 5:9; Rev. 2:10). Suffering is part of God’splan for his people (Acts 9:16; 1Thess. 3:2–4) and ispart of what it means to be a follower of Christ Jesus (Acts 14:22;Rom. 8:17; Phil. 1:29; 1Pet. 2:21; 4:12).
TheNT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it hasbecome part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering ofbelievers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel(Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11;6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16;2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor.1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb.10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God(Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), andthe crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of thedevelopment toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor.4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Sufferingis associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal(2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness,sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10);comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8);blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor.4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christiansuffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character andhope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity andcompleteness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentarywhen compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom.8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7;4:12–13).
Throughoutthe Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OTlaw provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged,and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10,35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesusregularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3;19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom.12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom.12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visitprisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
